lilll' 




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Copyright N^ 



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THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE 

TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



FOR 



SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN GERMANY 
AND THE UNITED STATES 



BY 

JOHN FRANKLIN BROWN, Ph.D. 

AUTHOR OF "THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL" 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1911 

j4Ii rights reserved 



•V. 



U' 



^.^l?! 



.•isn 



Copyright, 191 i. 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published January, igit. 



NorSnoott ?Ptes8 

J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



C CI. A 2803 70 



PREFACE 

It is just one hundred years since Prussia consciously 
and seriously faced the problem of providing adequate 
training for the teachers of her higher schools and, under 
the leadership of WiUiam von Humboldt, sketched the 
broad, statesmanHke policy which it has been the work 
of a century to develop. The specific forms which the 
problem has taken at different times within this period 
find striking analogy in the United States to-day. We 
cannot adopt in toto German means and methods, — 
the social and poHtical ideals of the two nations are so 
different as to make such action impossible even if it 
were desirable; but we can carefully study them and 
adapt them to our needs, thus profiting by the century 
of thought and experience which have made the German 
schools the most famous in the world. 

It is the purpose of this book, first, to describe as con- 
cretely as possible the standards and institutions which 
exist in Germany to-day for the training of teachers in 
the higher or secondary schools, giving enough of their 
history to show their evolution during the past century ; 
second, in the light of Germany's experience, to discuss 
a standard and a plan for the training of teachers in 
American high schools. 



VI PREFACE 

The material for Part I was largely gathered in 1909 
while I was serving as exchange teacher of English in the 
Oberrealsckule of the Franckesche Stiftungen at Halle 
a. S. The courtesy of German officials and educators 
in furnishing assistance and information left nothing to 
be desired. While I cannot name them all on account 
of the number, I wish to express my obligations to them 
and my hearty appreciation of their kindness. I should 
be ungrateful, however, if I did not mention specifically 
Dr. Wilhelm Fries, Director of the Franckesche Stiftun- 
gen, Director of the Gymnasial Seminar, and Professor 
of Pedagogy in the University of Halle, whose schol- 
arly writings, personal kindness, and professional inter- 
est in my report were invaluable. Without his unfailing 
assistance the work in its present form would have been 
impossible. I am also indebted to several English and 
American friends who have given valuable suggestions 
in connection with Part II and the Appendix. 

J. F. B. 

New York, 
November, 19 10. 



CONTENTS 

PART I — THE TRAINING OF GERMAN 
TEACHERS 

CHAPTER I 

The Prussian Schools 

PAGE 

Elementary Schools 4 

Higher Schools 7 

CHAPTER II 

The Certification of Teachers in Prussian Higher 
Schools 

Before 1810 20 

The Edict of 1810 21 

Provisions prevailing in 183 1 25 

Regulations of 1866 28 

Regulations of 1887 31 

Regulations of 1 890 33 

Regulations of 1898 33 

Lines of Development 72 

CHAPTER III 

Institutions for the Training of Teachers 

The University 75 

A. The University as a Whole 75 

B. The Theological-philological-pedagogical Seminar . 76 

C. The Pedagogical Seminar ...... 82 

The Gymnasial or Higher-school Seminar . . . .112 

A. The Royal Pedagogical Seminar in Berlin . . .112 
vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

PAGE 

B. The Pedagogical Seminar of the Franckesche Stift- 

ungen . . . . . . . . -US 

C. Other Modern Seminars ...... 143 

The Probejahr ......... 144 

A. Candidates in the Seminarium PrcBceptortim . . 145 

B. General Regulations 146 

CHAPTER IV 
Opinion and Practice 

The Study of Education in the University .... 149 

The Practical Pedagogical Seminar in the University . . 167 
The Gymnasial Seminar . . . . . . .172 

Length of Period of Practical Training 180 

CHAPTER V 

Standing of the Teacher in the Higher Schools 

Professionally 183 

Financially ........ ^ . 184 

Socially 187 

CHAPTER VI 

Impressions of the German System 

General Academic Training . . , . . . .189 

Theoretical Pedagogical Training in the University . . 192 

The State Examination {Staatsexatnen) . . . .194 

The Seminarjahr . . . . . . . . • IQS 

The Probejahr ......... 200 

PART II — THE TRAINING OF AMERICAN 
TEACHERS 

CHAPTER VII 

The Certification of American Teachers 

The Sphere of the American Secondary School . . . 207 
Standards of Certification in the Different States . . . 208 



CONTENTS IX 

PAGE 

The Qualifications of Secondary School Teachers . . . 232 

The Need of Higher Standards 234 

CHAPTER Vni 

Institutions for the Training of Secondary Teachers 

Normal Schools ......... 236 

The College as a Whole ....... 237 

Departments and Schools of Education ..... 237 

CHAPTER IX 
Who is Responsible ? 

The Responsibility of the State 244 

The Responsibility of the Individual Teacher . . . 249 

The Responsibility of the College and University . . .251 

The Responsibility of School Authorities .... 252 

CHAPTER X 
A Desirable Standard of Training 

Report of the Committee of Seventeen ..... 256 

The Period of Training 259 

Academic Training ........ 261 

Theoretical Professional Training ...... 263 

Practical Professional Training ...... 263 

CHAPTER XI 
A Plan for Providing the Desired Training 

General Academic Training should be Organized . . . 266 
Theoretical Professional Training should be more General 

and of Higher Grade 267 

Practical Professional Training 268 

State Supervision . . . . . . . . -275 

The State Examination ........ 276 

The Life Certificate 277 

Summary of Plan . 278 

/ 



X CONTENTS 

PAOS 

Advantages of the Plan 279 

Objections to the Plan 283 

The College or University Demonstration School . . . 286 

CHAPTER XII 
Conclusion 288 

APPENDIX 

A Brief Account of the Training of Secondary School Teach- 
ers in Austria, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, 
France, England, and Scotland 293 

Bibliography 327 



PART I 
THE TRAINING OF GERMAN TEACHERS 



THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

IN GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES 

CHAPTER I 

Prussian Schools ^ 

In Germany as in the United States each individual 
state has its own school system; but unlike our state 
control, that of Germany is thoroughgoing and exhaus- 
tive. Especially is this true in Prussia, where it often 
extends to the most minute details. It is exercised 
through ministries at BerUn, which are directly under 
control of the crown. 

Aside from the universities and the distinctly profes- 
sional and vocational schools, which are not included in 
this discussion, the schools of Prussia consist of two 
rather sharply separated divisions. The first division 
includes those schools which are designed to train the 
children of the laboring and the lower business classes 
and may be named elementary. The second division 

^ There are some differences between the schools of Prussia and those 
of the other German states, but the former may be regarded as typical 
of German schools. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



Elementary school di- 
vision: 



includes the so-called higher or secondary schools, which 
are designed to train those who are to enter the univer- 
sities and those who are to serve as lower state officials or 
as representatives of the larger business life. The two 
parts of the system may be represented as follows : — 

Volksschule, 
Mittelschule, 
. Forthildungsschule, 

Vorschule, 

Gymnasium, 

Realgymnasium, 

Oberrealschule, 

Reformgymnasium and Re- 

formrealgymnasium, 
Progymnasium, 
Realpro gymnasium, 
Realschule, 
Hohere M ddchenschule or 

Tbchterschule, 
Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, 

and Oberrealschule for girls, 
Frauenanstalt, 
Lehrerinnenseminar. 

Elementary Schools. — The Volksschule is the school 
for the children of the lower classes, including mainly 
laborers and the small business people. It is entirely 



Higher or secondary 
school division: 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 5 

free and in necessitous cases books and clothing are 
furnished the children. Attendance upon it is abso- 
lutely required from the age of six to fourteen unless 
the child attends some other school or receives satis- 
factory private instruction. The subjects taught are 
reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, history, geography, 
drawing, gymnastics, singing, and religion. Every de- 
tail of the ordinary Volksschule is regulated by the 
ministry of education. The management of the Hilfs- 
schule, or auxihary school, a new and special depart- 
ment of the Volksschule for backward and incompetent 
children, is left largely to the director and teachers. 

The MiUelschule is organically very similar to the 
Volksschule, the principal difference being that French 
and EngHsh are taught and the course is often one year 
longer. The real difference between it and the Volks- 
schule Hes in the fact that the pupils attending it come 
from distinctly better homes and are superior in intelli- 
gence and ambition. In its spirit and m the quaHty of 
the work done it is more like the Realschule than the 
Volksschule. A tuition fee of from ten to twenty-five 
dollars per year is required. It is patronized by the lower 
middle classes, especially the tradespeople. Not more 
than one twentieth as many pupils are found in the 
MiUelschule as in the Volksschule. The MiUelschule has 
taken the place of the earher Bilrgerschule and, in its 
present form, is a relatively recent development. Con- 



6 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

ditions for its management have not yet been definitely 
prescribed by the ministry, and each director is given 
large freedom in the control and management of his own 
school. When tlie collective experience of these men 
seems sufficient to form a satisfactory basis for expert 
judgment, a detailed program of procedure will prob- 
ably be issued by the ministry for the management 
of the Mittelschule. At present it is rejoicing in its 
freedom. 

The Foribildungsschule takes the boys and some of the 
girls when they have finished the work of the Volksschule 
and the Mittelschule and gives them instruction in sub- 
jects connected with trade or business. Attendance for 
girls is voluntary, for boys it is usually required six 
hours per week until they are seventeen years old. Many 
of these boys and girls are already serving as appren- 
tices in trade or business, and their employers are re- 
quired to allow them time in the afternoon or evening 
to attend their classes. It is the purpose of this school 
not to duplicate but to supplement the instruction 
by the employer, thus rendering the apprentice more 
efficient than he would otherwise be. Every means is 
used to make the work of the pupil directly helpful in his 
chosen vocation. Instructors are chosen from the ranks 
of Volksschule and Mittelschule teachers and from com- 
petent mechanics and tradespeople. The work of the 
Foribildungsschule, like that of the Mittelschule, is now 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 7 

left largely to the discretion of the director and his local 
advisers. The establishment of a Forthildungsschule 
is optional with local school authorities, but an imperial 
decree requires that if one is established, the employers of 
boys and girls for whom it is intended must give them 
opportunity to attend it. 

Higher Schools. — The Vorschule is an elementary 
school, so far as its work is concerned, but it is ranked 
with the higher schools because it is preparatory to them, 
and it is usually connected with a higher school. Boys 
enter it at six, and the course is three years in length. 
The subjects taught are the same as those in the first 
three years of the Volksschule, but they are taught with 
reference to the needs of the boy when he shall enter 
the higher school. The greater ability and higher ambi- 
tions of pupils make possible a much better grade of 
work. It is possible for pupils to enter the higher 
schools from the Volksschule or the Mittelschule, but 
nearly all of themx go by way of the Vorschule. > 

The higher schools, of which the Gymnasium is the 
oldest form, lead to the university, and their graduates 
are given certain social and vocational privileges. The 
history of the Gymnasium goes back to the middle of the 
sixteenth century. For a long time it held sway alone. 
The Realgymnasium and the Oberrealschule first ap- 
peared some two hundred years later, and, in their pres- 
ent form, they are creations of the last quarter of the 



8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

nineteenth century. In Prussia in 1908 there were 
332 Gymnasien with 101,094 pupils, 124 Realgymnasien 
with 37,683 pupils, 75 Oherrealschulen with 30,702 pupils, 
and 171 Realschulen with 33,465 pupils.^ The Gymna- 
sium has fought hard to maintain its supremacy, but 
the Realgymnasium and the Oherrealschule are slowly 
gaining on it. Since 1900 the three schools have been 
legally equal in rights, but practically the prestige of the 
Gymnasium remains greater because of the influence of 
tradition and the preference given it by many educators. 
The higher classes still prefer to send their boys to a 
Gymnasium. The great majority of higher schools of 
all kinds are public day schools. The relatively few 
private boarding and day schools conform to state re- 
quirements so far as quantity, quality, and kind of work 
are concerned. The course of study of the Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule is nine years in 
length. Pupils usually enter at nine and leave at eight- 
een, although some, requiring more time to complete the 
work, remain till they are twenty. There are no sharp 
limitations with reference to age. In Prussia the course 
of study for each of the higher schools is prescribed by 
the ministry. A boy is at liberty to choose which kind 
of school he will enter; but, once he has chosen, he is 
required to pursue the curriculum prescribed for that 
school. With slight exception in the Gymnasium, he 

^ Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen, XXX, 2, 146. 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 9 

can secure other subjects only by taking them as extras, 
and the average boy finds the prescribed curriculum 
so heavy that he attempts nothing more. Election 
is practically limited to the choice between schools, and 
for pupils who Hve in a community in which but one 
kind of school is available, there is really no choice. 
The prescribed curricula for the Prussian Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule for boys are as 
follows^: — 

CURRICULUM OF BOYS' GYMNASIUM 



Class 


VI 


V 


IV 


UIII 


OIII 


xni 


OH 


UI 


01 


Total 


Religion . . 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


19 


German and 


?, 


M 


















history 


(■4 


h 


3 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


26 


stories 


I 


I ) 


















Latin . . 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


7 


i 


l7 
16 


i 


68 


Greek . . 


— 


— 


— 


6 


6 


6 


36 


French . . 


— 


— 


4 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


20 


History . . 


— 


— 


2 


2 


2 


2 


i^ 


.3 


,3 


17 


Geography . 


2 


2 


2 


I 


I 


I 


9 


Arithmetic, 






















algebra, 






















and geom- 






















etry . . 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


4| 


4) 


4 


4) 


34 


Natural 






















sciences . 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2I 


2J 


2 


2J 


18 


Writing . . 


2 


2 








— 






— 




4 


Drawing 





2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


— 


— 


— 


8 


Total . 


25 


25 


29 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


259 



Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes an-d 2 hours singing for 

classes VI and V. 
Optional, in addition, from UII on, 2 hours drawing; from OH on, 2 hours 

English and 2 hours Hebrew. 



^ Lehrplane und Lehrauf gaben f iir die hoheren Schulen in Preussen. 



lO TRAINING OF TEACHERS TOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in IV and III whose hand- 
writing is poor. 

In the three higher classes (OH, UI, and 01), English may be substituted for 
French, the French remaining a,s an optional subject with 2 hours per 
week. 

For Greek in UIII, OHI, and UII, may be substituted Enghsh 3 hours per week 
for each year, and in UIII and OHI 2 hours French and i hour mathe- 
matics; in UII I hour French and 2 hours mathematics and natural 
science. 

01, or Oherprima, is the highest class; VI, or Sexta, the lowest. UI is called 
Unterprima; OH, Obersecunda; UII, U titer secunda; OHI, Ohertertia; UIII, 
Unteriertia; IV, Quarta; V, Quinta. 

CURRICULUM OF BOYS' REALGYMNASIVM 



Class 


VI 


V 


IV 


UIII 


OHI 


UII 


OH 


UI 


01 


Total 


Religion . . . 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


ig 


German and his- 
tory stories . 


\V 




3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


28 


Latin .... 


8 


8 


7 


5 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 


49 


French . . . 


— 


— 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 . 


4) 
3 1 


4 


29 


Enghsh . . . 


— 


— 


— 


3 


3 


3 


3, 


3 . 


18 


History . . . 


— 


— 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 . 


3 . 


3l 


17 


Geography . . 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 




1 


II 


Arithmetic, alge- 






















bra, and geom- 






















etry . . . 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


42 


Natural sciences 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


5 


5 


5 


29 


Writing . . . 


2 


2 


— 


— 


— 










4 


Drawing . . . 


— 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


16 


Total . . 


25 


25 


29 


30 


30 


30 


31 


31 


31 


262 



Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes and 2 hours singing for 
classes VI and V. 

Optional, in addition, from OHI on, 2 hours hnear drawing. 

Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in IV and HI whose hand- 
writing is poor. 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 



II 



CURRICULUM OF BOYS' OBERREALSCHULE 



Class 


VI 


V 


IV 


UIII 


OIII 


UII 


on 


UI 


01 


Total 


Religion . . . 

German and his- 
tory stories 

French . . . 

English . . . 

History . . . 

Geography . . 

Arithmetic, alge- 
bra, and geom- 
etry . . . 

Natural sciences 

Writing . . . 

Free-hand draw- 
ing ... . 


6 

2 

S 
2 
2 


2 

6 

2 

5 

2 
2 

2 


2 

4 
6 

3 

2 

6 

2 
2 

2 


2 
3 
6 
5 

2 
2 

6 

2 
2 


2 

3 
6 

4 

2 
2 

5 
4 

2 


2 
3 

51 

2 

I 

S 
6 

2 


2 

4 

4I 
4) 
3 

I 

5 
6 

2 


2 

4 

4] 
4 J 
3 

I 

5 
6 

2 


2 

4 

4} 
4 J 
3 

I 

S 
6 

2 


19 

34 
47 

25 

18 
14 

47 

36 

6 

16 


Total . . 


25 


25 


29 


30 


30 


30 


31 


31 


31 


262 



Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes and 2 hours singing for 

classes VI and V. 
Optional, in addition, from OIII on, 2 hours linear drawing. 
Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in III whose handwriting 

is poor. 

Choice between theGymnasium, the Real gymnasium, and 
the Oberrealschule must be made for the boy when he is not 
more than nine years old, otherwise he will be at a disad- 
vantage in the rearrangement of his work if he changes from 
one to the other. The manifest objections to this require- 
ment have given rise to schools known as the Reformgym- 
nasium and Reformrealgymnasium. The subjects pursued 
in the reform schools are the same as those required in the 
others of similar name, but the arrangement and grouping 
are such that final decision concerning the course to be 
taken can be deferred to the age of twelve. French takes 



12 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

the place of Latin in the earher years, and the number 
of hours of Latin is correspondingly increased during 
the later years of the course. 

The Progymnasium, Real pro gymnasium, and Real- 
schule are schools in which only the first six years' work 
of the nine-year course is given. They are found in 
those cities which are unable to support the full course. 
In some cases the arrangement of the work is slightly 
changed from that prescribed for the nine-year course, 
but it is always possible for a boy to go from the six- 
year school to the corresponding nine-year school and 
complete the course in the regular time. These six-year 
schools have prospered especially because of the fact 
that boys who have satisfactorily passed the examina- 
tion required for the leaving certificate are given the 
much-coveted privilege of serving but one year in the 
army and of entering upon the career of an officer in 
case they choose the army as a profession. 

The higher Madchenschule (also called Tochterschule) 
for girls is a ten-year institution, covering the years from 
six to sixteen. For some time the nine-year school and 
the ten-year school existed together, the former being 
considered the standard, the latter an experimental de- 
viation from it ; but the number of ten-year schools 
rapidly increased, and in 1908 this type was officially 
recognized as the normal. The higher M ddchenschule 
is a public day school organized and managed much 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 



as are the higher schools for boys, 
curriculum is as follows : — 



13 

The prescribed 



GENERAL CURRICULUM FOR HIGHER MADCHENSCHULE 



Class 



Religion ...... 

German 

French 

English 

History ^ and History of 

Art 

Geography 

Arithmetic, algebra, and 

geometry 

Nature study .... 

Writing 

Drawing^ 

Needlework ^ . . . . 

Singing _. 

Gymnastics 

Total . . . . 



Lower 

Classes 

(Vorschule) 



X IX VIII 



Middle 

Classes 



VII VI V 



Higher 

Classes 



IV III II I 



(2) 



(2) 



(2) 



(2) 



Total 



VII-I 



17 
32 
32 
16 

13 
14 

21 
17 

3 
14 

6(14) 
14 
18 



18 22 22 31 



31 



31 



31 



31 



31 



217 



Religion, German, French, English, history, geography, mathematics, and nature 
study are called scientific subjects; writing, drawing, needlework, singing, 
and gymnastics are called technical subjects. 

1 Instruction in religion and arithmetic in the Vorschule classes may be divided 

into half periods. 

2 In class VII German along with history stories. 
5 In class VIII domestic art. 

^ In classes X to VIII exercises in drawing and modeling are given occasionally 

in connection with German instruction. 
* Instruction in needlework is optional in the higher classes. 



By comparing this curriculum with those for the 
Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule for boys, 



14 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

it will be seen that the former falls short of the latter 
by two years. Until 1908 the Prussian state provided 
no school for girls which offered them an education equal 
to that available for boys. The additional training 
had to be secured, if at all, in private schools. The suc- 
cess of these private schools and the demand for larger 
educational opportunities for girls resulted in an imperial 
decree bearing date of August 15, 1908, according to 
which provision was made for establishment, by the 
state, of girls' higher schools corresponding to those 
already existing for boys. These new schools are to 
be formed by adding three years to the course previously 
prescribed for the higher Mddchenschule and by making 
certain modifications in the arrangement of the earlier 
work, beginning with the fifth year of the course in the 
case of the Gymnasium and with the sixth year in the case 
of the Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule. It remains 
to be seen how many of the previously established ten- 
year schools will become thirteen-year schools. The 
curricula for the three kinds of schools, beginning with 
the fourth year, are given below.^ The work of the first 
three years, the Vorschule, is the same as that given in the 
curriculum for the higher Mddchenschule. These cur- 
ricula correspond to those previously given for the 
Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule for boys, 

^ Bestimmmigen tiber die Neuordnung des hoheren Madchenschul- 
wesens in Preussen. 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 



IS 



the apparent difference being due to a different way of 
designating the classes. The girls are given ten years 
to do the work done by the boys in nine years. 



CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' GYMNASIUM^ 



Class 


X 


IX 


VIII 


VII 


VI 


V 


IV 


m 


II 


I 


Total 


Religion . 
German ^ 
Latin . . 
Greek 
French » . 
English 3. 
History * 
Geography 
Mathematic 
Nature stud 
Writing . 
Drawing 
Needlework 
Singing . 
Gymnastics 


s . 

y ■ 


3 
6 

6 

2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 
5 

5 

2 
2 

3 
2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 
5 

S 

2 
2 
3 
2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


2 

4 

4 
4 

2 
2 
3 
3 

2 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 

3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
3 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 

3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
3 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
8 

2 

2 

I 

3 
2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
8 

2 

2 

I 

3 

2 
3 


2 

3 
6 
8 

2 

2 

I 
3 
2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
8 

2 

2 

I 

3 
2 

3 


23 

38 

36 

32 

34 

10 

18 

14 

32 

23 

3 

12 

6 

8 

27 


Total . . 


31 


31 


31 


31 


32 


32 


32 


32 


32 


32 


316 



Optional, in addition, singing i hour from class VI on; drawing 2 hours from 
class IV on ; needlework in VII. 

^The term Studienanstalt is used to include the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, 

and Oherrealsckule for girls. 
' In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German. 
' In the four higher classes English may be substituted for French. 
* In class IX German with history stories. 



1 6 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' REALGYMNASIUM 



Class 


X 


IX 


VIII 


VII 


VI 


V 


IV 


III 


II 


I 


Total 


Religion 

German i 

Latin . 

French 

English 

History '^ 

Geograph 

Mathema 

Nature st 

Writing 

Drawing 

Needlewo 

Singing 

Gymnasti 


y ■ 

tics 
iidy 

rk! 

cs . 


3 
6 

6 

2 

3 

2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 
S 

5 

2 
2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 
5 

5 

2 
2 
3 
2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


2 

4 

4 
4 

2 
2 
3 

3 

2 

2 

3 


2 
3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
3 

2 

3 


2 
3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
3 

2 

3 


2 
3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
4 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

I 

4 
4 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
3 
3 
2 
I 

4 
4 

2 

3 


2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 
I 

4 
4 

2 

3 


23 

38 
36 
38 

22 
18 
14 
36 
31 

3 

20 
6 
8 

27 


Total . 


31 


31 


31 


31 


32 


32 


33 


33 


33 


33 


320 



Optional, in addition, i hour of singing from class VI on. 

1 In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German. 

2 In class IX German with history stories. 

CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' OBERREALSCHULE 



Class 


X 


IX 


vm 


VII 


VI 


V 


IV 


HI 


II 


I 


Total 


Religion . . 
German ' . . 
French . . 
Enghsh . . 
History 2 . . 
Geography . 
Mathematics 
Nature study 
Writing . . 
Drawing . . 
Needlework . 
Singing _ . . 
Gymnastics . 


3 
6 
6 

2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 

5 
5 

2 

2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


3 

5 
S 

2 
2 
3 
2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 


2 

4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
3 

2 

2 
3 


2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
3 

2 

2 
3 


2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
I 
4 
4 

2 
3 


2 

4 

J! 

2 

1' 

2 
3 


2 

4 

t! 

2 

I 

4 * 
2 

3 


2 
4 

t\ 

2 

h 

2 
3 


2 
4 

ti 

2 

I 

M 

4) 
2 

3 


23 
44 
44 
28 
18 
IS 
39 
32 

3 
20 

6 
10 
27 


Total . 


31 


31 


31 


31 


31 


30 


31 


31 


31 


31 


3og 



Optional, in addition, i hour of singing from class V on; needlework 2 hours in 

VII and VI. 
> In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German. 
* In class IX German with history stories. 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 



17 



Besides the higher Madchenschule and the Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule for girls, all of which 
are nonvocational general culture schools, there is an- 
other class called the Lyzeum that is distinctly vocational 
in character. The Lyzeum has two divisions, the Frau- 
enanstalt, or school for women, and theLehrerinnenseminar, 
or normal school for female teachers. The former has a 
two-yea course immediately following that of the higher 
Madchenschule, and the work, which consists largely of 
training in the household arts and the care of children, 
is designed to prepare girls for the duties of the home. 

CURRICULUM OF LEHRERINNENSEMINAR 



III 



n 



Total 



Practice 
Year 



Religion .... 
Pedagogy . . . 
German .... 
French .... 
English .... 
History .... 
Geography . . . 
Mathematics . . 
Nature study . . 
Theory and method 
Practice teaching . 
Special studies 2 . 
Drawing .... 
Singing .... 
Gymnastics . . . 



32 



32 



4 

3 

(4I) 



31 



9 
6 
9 

12 I 

12) 

6( 

4) 



95 



4 
4-6 



S-30 



* Included in the study of particular subjects. 

2 A special study of subjects that the student will teach. In the practice year 
method is studied in coimection with the different subjects. 



1 8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The Lehrerinnenseminar is a school for the training of 
teachers, most of whom enter the elementary schools ; 
some of them, however, are admitted to the girls' higher 
schools as nonacademically trained teachers. The 
curriculum of the Lehrerinnenseminar, as given above, 
presupposes the completion of the course in the higher 
Mddchenschule. 

This brief sketch of the Prussian schools shows in a 
general way the sphere of the teacher, especially of the 
teacher in the higher schools. It may be added that he 
has no responsibility for the making of curricula or for 
the selection of subject matter in any form. All of this 
is done for him by state authority, and specific instruc- 
tions are given him as to how the various subjects should 
be taught. His task is sharply defined, and he is held 
responsible for its proper performance. The organiza- 
tion of the schools emphasizes the importance of good 
teaching quite as much as of scholarship. The teacher 
must learn to adapt himself and his work to the nine- 
year-old child as well as to the youth of eighteen or 
twenty. Good teaching is the one thing required of him. 

The management of the schools mentioned is vested 
in two entirely separate ministries located in Berlin. 
The Fortbildungsschulen are under the direction of the 
ministry of trade and industry (Handelsministerium). 
The others are under the direction of the ministry of 
education {geistliche, Unterrichts- und Medizinalange- 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS ig 

legenheiten) . Further, in the management of the Volks- 
schule and the Mittelschule, the ministry of education 
works through the county board (Regierung) ; in the 
management of the higher schools, through the provin- 
cial school board (Provinzialschulkollegium) . Both of 
these subauthorities are responsible to the ministry of 
education, but they have very little to do with each other. 
This fact serves to emphasize the sharp separation 
between the elementary schools and the higher schools. 
Just as everything else in Germany, the schools are highly 
specialized. 



CHAPTER II 

The Certification of Teachers in Prussian 
Higher Schools 

The present high standard of quaUfications legally 
required of teachers in the higher schools of Germany 
has a long history. It is the product of centuries of devel- 
opment, but its evolution during the last hundred years 
is particularly significant. The bare outlines of this his- 
tory, together with a more complete statement of present 
requirements, are given in this chapter. 

Before 1810 the legal qualifications of teachers for the 
Prussian higher schools were neither very definitely 
stated nor very strictly enforced. There are on record 
official regulations bearing date of 17 13, 17 18, 1750, and 
1787, but their greatest significance lies in the fact that 
they represent an attempt to require certain more or less 
definitely stated qualifications in teachers without suffi- 
cient state control of the schools or adequate recognition 
of the teacher's position. Concerning these regulations, 
Wiese, the great historian of the Prussian higher schools, 
says : " From them no general and consequently effective 
provision arose, and before 18 10 a certificate obtained by 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 21 

examination cannot be regarded as a necessary require- 
ment for admittance to the position of teacher in the 
higher schools. Such a certificate was seldom demanded 
by the patrons of the city schools. As long as the 
teachers were chiefly theologians, evidence of scientific 
training for the ministerial office was usually regarded 
as sufficient ; in other cases the recommendation of an 
experienced man of rank or the teaching of a test lesson 
sufficed. The degree of Master or Doctor received from 
the university was valid as a certificate of admission to 
the teacher's office, as was also evidence of participation 
in the theological, philological, and pedagogical seminars 
connected with the universities." ^ The situation here 
described is the more easily understood when it is remem- 
bered that at this time the schools were neither supported 
nor controlled by the state but by the church or by 
private organizations of some kind, and most of the 
teachers were young theologians, who followed the work 
of teaching as a makeshift until they should be appointed 
to positions in the church. Not the state but the church 
was the dominating influence. 

The Edict of 1810 was the result of the quickened na- 
tional consciousness which, after the Napoleonic defeats, 
developed under the inspiring leadership of Fichte and 
his illustrious colleagues. In his Addresses to the German 
People the former pleaded for a higher ideal of intelli- 
^ Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen, I, 545. 



22 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

gence and patriotism, while the latter both created new 
standards of culture and organized more effectively the 
national forces already in existence. As Chief of the 
Division for Culture and Instruction, William von Hum- 
boldt was the leading educational ofi&cial of the nation, 
and he brought to the position, not only true patriotism, 
but great breadth of view and wealth of experience gained 
by years of study, both at home and abroad, of art, his- 
tory, philology, and jurisprudence. He was at once a 
great scholar and an able official. To him, more than 
to any one else, is due the honor of sketching the official 
order the execution of which has made the schools of 
Germany great. 

The edict was officially promulgated on July 12. In 
April of the same year von Humboldt wrote as follows : 
" The business of education in the state is honored if every 
one who is occupied therewith is first required to give 
evidence of his ability for it, and duly educates himself 
among those who devote themselves to this business and 
who, through public sanction, form at the same time a 
closed circle. Thus a spirit develops, which without being 
a tribal spirit is directed steadily and surely towards the 
attainment of a common end. There arises a pedagog- 
ical school and a pedagogical comradeship ; and if it is 
important to prevent unity of views effected through com- 
pulsion, it is equally important, through a certain com- 
munity which is never thinkable without the separation 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 23 

of those not belonging to it, to produce a strength and 
enthusiasm which are always wanting in individual and 
scattered efforts, which separate the bad from them, raise 
and lead the average, and establish and hasten the prog- 
ress of the best. This last and most important purpose 
can only be attained, however, when the examinations 
are undertaken with a certain satisfaction and are re- 
garded as an opportunity to prove power." ^ 

In the promulgation of the edict the accomplishment 
of three things was sought : i. The release of the schools 
from the influence of teachers who received their appoint- 
ment upon the recommendation of irresponsible and, too 
often, incompetent advisers. 2. The complete separa- 
tion of the schools from the domination of the church. 
3. The establishment of a standard of qualifications for 
teachers which would both secure efi&ciency in the schools 
and lead to the development of an independent profession 
of teaching. The avowed underlying principle was that 
the character and the importance of the work of the 
schools are such that it can only be satisfactorily done by 
those who have received special training for it and who 
devote their lives to it. For the work of the church a 
definite standard had already been established. A simi- 
lar but entirely separate standard was now sought for 
the work of the school. 

The provisions of the original edict were simple. The 

^ Wiese, Das hohere Schnlwesen in Preussen, I, 546. 



24 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

examination pro facuUate docendi was to be conducted by 
a state commission appointed for the purpose. It con- 
sisted of three parts, the oral and the written tests and the 
trial lesson. The subject matter was mainly philological 
and mathematical, though other subjects to which the 
candidate had specially devoted himself were not excluded. 
Judgment concerning the extent of the examination and 
a satisfactory standard of attainment was left with the 
examining commission. Men who had received the 
degree of Doctor or Master from a Gennan university 
and members of the various seminars attached to the 
universities were excused from the written examination. 
A special examination for a specified position, different 
from the general examination, was permitted. Desirable 
foreigners and prominent officials might be exempt. 
The provisions of the edict were to be enforced, begin- 
ning with the year 1813. 

Changes in the provisions of the edict were made from 
time to time, the general effect of which was to render 
them both more specific and more extensive. Only the 
more important are noted in this sketch. In the first 
place, the subject matter of the examination was soon 
seen to be one-sided, and in 1824 philosophy, history, and 
theology were added. The single test lesson proved un- 
satisfactory, and in 1826 the Prohejahr or year of trial 
teaching was introduced. Wiese gives the essential 
provisions prevailing in 183 1 as follows: — 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 25 

" The examinations which the royal scientific examination 
commission has to administer are : (i) the examination pro facul- 
tafe docendi; (2) for a specified position; (3) for promotion; 
(4) for the position of rector. 

" The examination pro facuUate docendi refers to {a) languages 
(Greek, Latin, French, Hebrew) ; (b) sciences (mathematics, 
physics, natural history) ; history and geography (along with 
antiquities, mythology, and the history of Greek and Roman 
literature) ; philosophy and pedagogy ; theology. 

" With the appHcation for the examination must be presented a 
certificate of proficiency in the university studies and of the com- 
pletion of the academic triennium; also an autobiographical sketch 
in Latin. (In the case of those who wish to give instruction par- 
ticularly in the sciences in Realschulen and higher Biirgerschulen 
this sketch may be written in French.) Foreigners need a min- 
isterial permit to admit them to the examination. 

" Form of the examination : written treatises, test lessons, and 
oral examination. 

" Groups of subjects in which a facultas docendi can be secured : 

(a) the two ancient languages and German ; {b) mathematics and 
the natural sciences ; (c) geography and history. 

" Grades of certificate : (a) unconditioned facultas docendi ; 

(b) conditioned facultas docendi. 

'" The imconditioned facultas docendi shall be given to him 
only who, besides possessing satisfactory teaching ability, is so 
far master of the subject matter in at least one of the three essen- 
tial parts of school instruction (that is, of the above subjects, 
a, b, c), that with proper preparation he can teach this subject 
with success in one of the two higher classes of a Gymnasium. 
With all the remaining subjects of the examination he must be 
well enough acquainted to estimate rightly their relation to the 
other subjects and their relative importance, and he must be able 
to use these successfully for the general education of the pupils.' 

" Conditioned /ac2^Zto5 docendi. — 'He who possesses sufficient 



26 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

knowledge in the principal subjects to be able to instruct in the 
upper classes, but who, on the contrary, does not satisfy the re- 
quirements in one or in several subjects which must be demanded 
of every teacher in a higher school, can receive the facuUas do- 
cendi only on condition that he make up afterwards the specified 
deficiencies in his scientific education. Further, the conditioned 
facuUas docendi is to be given to all those candidates who, in one 
or in several of the principal subjects of instruction, possess only 
so much knowledge as is required of teachers in the middle and 
lower classes.' 

"To special requirements belong the following: 'He who does 
not possess as much knowledge of the German language and lit- 
erature and as much scientific education as are necessary to enable 
him to instruct with success in the German language in every class, 
including the highest, can lay no claim to the unconditioned 
facuUas docendi in a philological subject.' 

" ' In the case of French, a knowledge of the grammar and the 
ability to translate a poet or prose writer readily are to be required 
of every one, even when he gives no instruction in this language.' 

"For the unconditioned facuUas docendi in history it is also 
required 'that the candidate shall possess enough philological 
training so that he can use the Greek and Roman authors, not only 
for his lectures, but through these authors be able to contribute 
to an understanding of the lectures; and besides he must be so 
proficient in the oral expression of the Latin language that he is 
able to give his lectures in ancient history in that language.' 

"Philosophy and pedagogy. — 'Of every candidate, even when 
he wishes to instruct in the lower classes only, is required a knowl- 
edge of logic, psychology, and the history of philosophy, as well as 
acquaintance with scientific pedagogy. Of the candidates who 
wish to instruct in the higher classes of the Gymnasium and to 
teach the preparatory philosophical studies arranged for these 
classes, it is required that, besides an accurate knowledge of the 
science of instruction and a critical estimate of the worth of differ- 



CERTiriCATION OF TEACHERS 27 

ent systems of instruction and education, they be able to develop 
scientifically the content of logic, metaphysic, and psychology; 
and that with a general knowledge of the history of philosophy 
and of different philosophical systems, a more accurate acquaint- 
ance with philosophy since Kant be united.' 

"Of those candidates who do not wish to give instruction in 
religion, acquaintance with the contents of the Holy Scriptures 
and knowledge of Christian faith and moraUty are required. 

"Cost of certificate: four thalers. 

'^Dispensation. — He who has received the degree of Doctor or 
Master after a formal oral examination and after a public defence 
of a printed Latin dissertation before the philosophical faculty of a 
German university is excused from the written examination. . . . 

"The candidates who are provisionally rejected on account of 
the insufficiency of their knowledge receive a certificate also, in 
which is stated the time up to which they may apply for another 
examination. Copies of certificates of this kind are to be sent to 
the other scientific examination commissions. 

"The regulations concerning the Prohejahr are taken up in the 
law (pp. 547 and 533). [A Probejahr for observation and practice 
was required.] 

"In the examination of teachers for Realschulen and higher 
Burger schulen, the requirements in mathematics and the natural 
sciences, as weU as those in history, 'geograph}^, and French, should 
be raised rather than lowered, and the requirements in the Latin 
language should never be remitted entirely. 

"The examination for a specified position as well as the exam- 
ination for promotion takes place only when the candidate is 
chosen for a definite position; that is, has been promoted to a 
higher position for which he has not previously shown the required 
qualification. It refers only to those subjects in which the can- 
didate is required to give instruction in the particular position. 

"The examination for the position of rector is held only when 
the designation for a particular position as director occurs. The 



28 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

purpose of this examination is to determine whether the person 
proposed for the directorate of a Gymnasium or a Realschule pos- 
sesses the grade of philosophical, pedagogical, and scientific knowl- 
edge which is required to superintend the whole of such an insti- 
tution of learning and to direct it systematically." ^ 

The Examination Requirements of 1866 are sufficiently 
different from those of preceding years to mark a step in 
advance. The significant changes are as follows: — 

1. In the order of 1831 there was no sharp distinction 
between the examination required to test the candidate's 
general education and that required to test his knowledge 
of the subjects that he wished to teach. Examination 
was required in all the subjects named, but it might be 
less severe in those subjects which he did not expect to 
teach. In the order of 1866 all candidates were required 
to pass an oral examination in religion, in philosophy 
and pedagogy, in history and geography, in the ancient 
languages, and in French. Examination in mathematics 
was not required in this general test, and examination in 
the natural sciences was required of those only who wished 
to become teachers of mathematics. On the other hand, 
a special examination both oral and written was required 
in those subjects for which the candidate desired the 
teaching certificate. 

2. The written work of the examination was made more 
extensive and more definite. The candidate was required 

^ Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen, I, 548-549. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 29 

to present a carefully written discussion of some philo- 
sophical or pedagogical subject and one or two papers in 
the sphere of the subjects for which he desired to be certifi- 
cated. The writing of these papers in Latin was required 
of those only who desired a certificate for the classical 
languages. Those who had received the degree of doctor 
of philosophy from the university were no longer excused 
from the written examination, but they might present the 
doctor's dissertation or some other particularly meritori- 
ous piece of writing in place of the special thesis required 
in this same sphere. 

3. The grouping of the subjects was changed, and 
theology and the modern languages were added as princi- 
pal subjects. The new arrangement included the philo- 
logical-historical group ; the mathematical-natural science 
group ; theology ; and the modern languages, the groups 
being regarded theoretically as equal in value. 

4. The requirement concerning the test lesson was re- 
laxed. It was left to the option of the candidate whether 
or not, at the close of his oral examination, he would give 
such an exercise. 

5. The special examinations for a specified place, for 
promotion, and for the position of rector were practically 
omitted. 

6. Three grades of certificates were issued instead of 
two as formerly. A certificate of the first grade was issued 
to a candidate who, in addition to a satisfactory general 



3© TRAINING or TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

examination, showed teaching proficiency in two or three 
principal subjects for the higher classes and like profi- 
ciency in one of two other subjects for the middle classes. 
A certificate of the second grade was given to a candidate 
who had failed in any one of the points required for the 
first grade, or who, besides giving satisfactory proof of a 
general education, had shown teaching proficiency in two 
or three subjects for the middle classes and like proficiency 
in some subjects for the lower classes. A third-grade 
certificate was issued to a candidate who had failed 
to satisfy the second-grade requirements with ref- 
erence to the general examination or with reference to 
specific subjects which he wished to teach. In case 
the candidate showed incompetence to teach as far as 
Quarta, the third year of the course, no certificate was 
granted. A candidate who, besides having the required 
general education, showed proficiency in one or both of 
the modern languages for all classes was nevertheless 
debarred from the higher positions, — a fact which 
showed that the modern languages were not yet practi- 
cally regarded as on a par with the other subjects. In a 
similar way theology was placed at a slight disadvantage, 
for candidates who wished to teach this subject could ob- 
tain a first-grade certificate only when, in addition to the 
general examination, they showed proficiency in German, 
theology, and Hebrew for all classes, and proficiency for 
the middle classes in either Latin and Greek or in mathe- 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 3 1 

matics and the natural sciences. Candidates whose gen- 
eral examination in religion, philosophy, or history was 
not entirely satisfactory were sometimes temporarily 
certificated, but were required to prepare themselves for 
another examination in the deficient subject before they 
received permanent appointment. Both candidates and 
teachers were permitted to pass examinations for a higher- 
grade certificate as often as they desired to do so. 
The Requirements of 1887 show the following changes : — 

1. The general examination required of all candidates 
was limited to philosophy, pedagogy, the German lan- 
guage and literature, and the Christian religion. This 
limitation was made because it was recognized that the 
leaving examination of the higher school, required before 
the candidate could enter the university, was a consider- 
able test of general culture, and preparation for a later 
examination in all subjects served to dissipate the candi- 
date's energy. 

2. The basis upon which certificates were granted was 
changed, and but two grades were recognized. A certifi- 
cate of the first grade (Oberlehrerzeugniss) was granted 
to a candidate who, besides meeting the requirements of 
the general examination, showed proficiency in two prin- 
cipal subjects for all classes and proficiency in either one 
companion subject for the higher classes or in two com- 
panion subjects for the middle classes. A certificate of 
the second grade {Lehrerzeugniss) was granted to a candi- 



32 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

date who showed proficiency in two principal subjects 
and one companion subject for the middle classes and in at 
least one companion subject for the lower classes. 

3. The grouping and ranking of individual subjects 
showed slight modification. The modern foreign lan- 
guages were placed with the ancient languages and Ger- 
man in one group and were regarded as principal subjects 
equal in value to any other. Geography, formerly united 
with some other subject, was made a principal subject. 
The two principal subjects for which the candidate 
wished to be certificated had to be chosen from the 
same group. 

4. Provision was made for a supplementary examina- 
tion. In case the candidate had passed satisfactorily the 
examination in the two principal subjects, but had failed 
to meet the requirements of the general examination or of 
the companion subjects, he was granted a "conditioned" 
certificate and placed under obligations to make up the 
deficiencies within three years at most. At first such a 
candidate was permitted to enter at once upon the year 
of trial service {Probejahr), but in 1890 this privilege was 
withdrawn. 

5. A candidate who had failed entirely in one examina- 
tion was permitted but one more trial. 

6. A candidate who had received a certificate of first or 
second grade was admitted to a second or third partial 
examination, either to extend his teaching right to higher 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 33 

classes in a subject in which he already possessed it for 
the lower classes, or to extend it to other subjects. 

7. Candidates for the ministry, who possessed the edu- 
cation required for appointment to a position in the 
church, might receive a first-grade certificate {Ober- 
lehrerzeugniss) by passing an oral examination showing 
their ability to give instruction in religion in the higher 
classes and in one subject of the language-history group in 
the middle classes ; and by passing an oral examination 
and presenting a thesis showing proficiency in Hebrew 
for the higher classes. 

The Order of 1890 provided for the establishment of a 
Seminarjahr, a year of combined theoretical and practical 
training, between the time the candidate had passed his 
state examination and his entrance upon the Prohejahr or 
year of trial service. The manner in which this order is 
carried out is described in full on later pages. 

The Order of 1898 was concerned mainly with modifi- 
cations looking towards a better administration of existing 
rules, and, with a few minor changes, it remains in force. 
For the reader who would understand the spirit and the 
details of German training the regulations contained in 
this order are so significant that they are given in full. 
The changes made since 1898 are incorporated in them. 



34 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Rules ^ of the Examination for the Position of Teacher in 
THE Higher Schools of Prussia, from September 12, 1898 ^ 

§ I. Purpose of the Examination 

The purpose of the examination is the determination of the 
scientific qualifications for the position of teacher in higher schools. 

§ 2. The Examining Authority 

The examination is given by one of the royal scientific examina- 
tion commissions. 

The minister of education {der geistlichen, Unterrichfs- und 
Medizinalangelegenheiten) determines the place and the examina- 
tion district of these commissions and names their members. 

The commissions are composed for the most part of university 
instructors and schoolmen ; the chairmanship is given to a school- 
man. 

The term of office of the commissions is one year. 

^ Translated from Die Ordnungen fiir die Priifung fixr die praktische 
Ausbildung und die Anstellung der Kandidaten des hoheren Lehramts 
in Preussen, by Dr. Wilhelm Fries. The author is under particular 
obhgations to Dr. Fries for the privilege of using this material. 

^ The regulations given in this chapter apply to men teachers only. 
There are no women teachers in the boys' higher schools. In the girls' 
higher schools about seventy-five per cent of the teachers are women. 
Their scholastic training is not nearly equal to that required of men teach- 
ers. It consists usually of the girls' higher school course and a three- 
year seminar course. In 1908 the German universities were thrown 
open to women on equal terms with men, and beginning with the year 
1 91 3 women teachers entering the higher schools must have had univer- 
sity training and must have passed the state examination for higher 
teachers. No provision for the Seminarjahr and Frobejahr has yet been 
made, but it will probably come when there are imiversity-trained women 
who wish to become teachers in the higher schools. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 35 

§ 3. Examining Boards 

For the examination of individual candidates the chairman 
appoints from the members of the commission an examining board, 
the leadership of which he either assumes himself or assigns to 
another member. 

The decisions of the board are made by majority vote. In 
case of a tie, the chairman casts the deciding vote. 

§ 4. Jurisdiction of the Commission 

1. Every commission is competent to hold the examination 
in whose examination district — 

a. The university is situated in which the candidate spent 

the last and at least one earlier semester of his uni- 
versity course, or 

b. The candidate expects to be employed, or is already 

employed, in public school service, 

2. In case of the temporary overburdening of one commission, 
or for special reasons, the consideration of applications made to it 
may be assigned by the minister to another commission. 

3. In order to make appUcation to a commission which does 
not have jurisdiction, a candidate must present his reasons to 
the minister and secure his approval. 

4. Candidates not belonging to the German Empire must, in 
every case, secure the approval of the minister for their apphcation. 

§ 5. Coiiditions of Admission 
I. For admission to the examination it is required that the 
candidate shall have obtained the leaving certificate (Reifezeugniss) 
of a German Gymnasium or Realgymnasium, or of a Prussian Ober- 
realschule or of an Oberrealschule situated outside of Prussia, which 
is recognized as of equal rank ; and that afterwards he shall have 
pursued his professional studies regularly at least six semesters 
in a German state university (§ 7, 2). With regard to the three 



36 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

semesters' attendance at a Prussian university, refer to the cabinet 
order of June 30, 1841.^ 

2. With regard to the provisions given under i, in apphcation 
for the teacher's certificate in mathematics, physics, and chemis- 
try, regular study in a German technical university (Hochschule) 
is reckoned equal to study in a German university to the extent 
of three semesters. 

3. A candidate who seeks the teacher's certificate in French or 
English and who has studied for some time in a foreign university 
with French or EngUsh lectures, or who has evidently devoted 
himself, in lands where these languages are spoken, to his linguistic 
education, along with scientific pursuits, can, with the approval of 
the minister, have this time reckoned, up to two semesters, as 
part of the prescribed period of study. 

§ 6. Application for Examination 

1. A written application for examination must be sent by the 
candidate to the chairman of the commission. 

In the application it must be stated in what subjects (§ g, i, B) 
and for what classes (§11) the candidate expects to prove his quali- 
fications, and in what fields he wishes to receive the subjects for 
the home essays in the general examination and in the special- 
subject examination. 

2. With the application must be inclosed: — 

a. A biographical sketch written in the candidate's own 

hand, in which is given the full name of the candidate, 
the position of his father, day and place of birth, and 
religious confession; the school training that he has 
had must be indicated, and the course and extent of 
his academic studies must be given in detail. 

b. The originals of the certificates which show the fulfiU- 

^ Except in special cases candidates are required to spend at least 
three semesters in a Prussian university. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 37 

ment of the conditions for admission to the examina- 
tion (§5). 

c. A statement concerning military status. 

d. In case the application is made more than one year after 

leaving the university, an official statement concerning 
the manner in which the time has been spent. 

e. In case the candidate has already received the degree of 

Doctor of Philosophy, a copy of the Doctor's disser- 
tation and of the Doctor's diploma. 
/. In case the candidate has published other writings or 
treatises, a copy of these. 
3. With the application for another examination, or for an exam- 
ination to extend the teaching right to higher classes or to additional 
subjects (Wiederholungs-, Ergdnzungs-, oder Erweiterungs-prufung) 
(§§37 3.nd 38), a complete account must be given of all the earlier 
appKcations for examination and their result. If it should turn 
out, subsequently, that the candidate has concealed anything 
essential, the chairman of the commission is empowered, with the 
approval of the examining board, to withdraw the already granted 
permission to take the examination. 

§ 7. Admission to the Examination 

1. On the basis of the application the chairman of the com- 
mission decides whether the candidate is to be admitted to the 
examination or not. 

2. Admission shall be denied if the conditions indicated in 
§ 5 have not been fulfilled, and especially, if the candidate, as 
indicated by the certificates presented, has pursued his studies 
so unmethodically that they cannot be regarded as a proper prep- 
aration for his calUng. In the examination of this question it is 
to be assumed that the candidate, as a rule and apart from special 
grounds for excuse, has taken part in the lectures and exercises 
essential for the study of his subjects, and that he has heard 
besides some lectures of a generally educative character. 



38 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Further, admission is to be denied if well-grounded doubts 
prevail with reference to the moral blamelessness of the candidate. 

If admission is denied, the candidate can appeal within fourteen 
days to the decision of the minister. 

If admission is finally denied, the chairman of the commission 
has to note the fact upon the academic leaving certificates. 

3. If a candidate is admitted, he is assigned to an examination 
board. The chairman has to inform him of the fact and, at the 
same time, to communicate with him concerning the home theses 
of the examination, required according to § 28, 3 and 6, and 
§ 40, I. 

§ 8. Extent and Form of the Examination 

The examination consists of two parts : the general examina- 
tion and the special-subject examination. Both are written and 
oral ; the home theses are to be finished before the oral examination. 

In the general examination as well as in the special-subject exam- 
ination, the conditions of instruction in the higher schools are to 
be taken into account. 

§ 9. Subjects of Examination 

I. The subjects of the examination are : — 

A. In the general examination, for every candidate, phi- 

losophy, pedagogy, and German literature; further, 
for those candidates who belong to the Christian church, 
rehgion. 

B. In the special-subject examination according to the 

choice of the candidate: i. The Christian religion; 
2. introduction to philosophy; 3. German; 4. Latin; 
5. Greek; 6. Hebrew; 7. French; 8. English; 
9. history; 10. geography; 11. pure mathematics; 
12. applied mathematics; 13. physics; 14. chemistry 
with mineralogy; 15. botany with zoology. To 
these are added, in the case of those commissions for 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 39 

which examiners are appointed for the following sub- 
jects: 1 6. Polish; and 17. Danish. 

The combinations of subjects, chemistry with min- 
eralogy and botany with zoology, form only one sub- 
ject in the examination. 

2. The choice granted to the candidate according to i, B, is 
limited by the condition that, among the subjects indicated by 
him, there must always be one of the following combinations: 
Latin and Greek; French and English or Latin; history and 
geography; religion and Hebrew or Greek ; pure mathematics and 
physics ; chemistry with mineralogy and physics, or, instead of 
physics, botany and zoology ; with the provision, however, that in 
place of each subject named in the first three combinations and in 
place of Hebrew in the fourth, German may be substituted. 

3. The candidate is not prohibited from choosing a greater 
number of subjects than is required, according to § 34, i, for 
undertaking the examination. 

4. AppUed mathematics can be chosen only in connection with 
piure mathematics. 

§ 10. Extent of the Requirements in the General Examination 

The general examination does not aim at the presentation of 
professional knowledge, but at evidence of a general education in the 
spheres concerned, which is required of teachers of higher schools. 

Accordingly the candidate, in the thesis required of him accord- 
ing to § 28, I, has to manifest not merely adequate information 
and intelligent judgment concerning the subject treated, but also 
to show that he is capable of a grammatically correct, logically 
arranged, clear, and sufficiently skillftd presentation. 

For the oral examination it is required that the candidate — 

I. In rehgion show himself acquainted with the content and 
connection of the Holy Scriptures, have a general survey of the 
history of the Christian church, and know the principal doctrines 
of his confession. 



40 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

2. In philosophy be acquainted with the most important facts of 
its history and with the principles of logic and psychology, and 
shall have read an important philosophical treatise with under- 
standing. 

3. In pedagogy show that he is acquainted with its philosophical 
foundations as well as with the most important phenomena in 
their development since the sixteenth century, and has already 
attained some understanding of the problems of his future calling. 

4. In German literature demonstrate that he is acquainted 
with its general course of development since the beginning of its 
blossoming period in the eighteenth century, and that since leav- 
ing the school he has also read with understanding for his own 
further education the important works of this time. 

Candidates who successfully pass the special-subject examina- 
tion in religion, introduction to philosophy, or German are ex- 
cused from the general examination in the same subject. 

§ II to § 27. Extent of Requirements in the Special-subject 
Examination 

Preliminary Remark. — In every part of the examination ac- 
quaintance with the most important scientific means of illustration 
[apparatus, maps, books, etc.] is required. 

§ II. Gradation in Certification 

1. Certification in the individual subjects has two grades: 
one (second grade), for the lower and middle classes, extends to 
Untersecunda inclusive; the other (first grade) includes also the 
higher classes to Oherprima inclusive. 

2. In introduction to philosophy, in Hebrew, and in applied 
mathematics, on account of their position in the program of studies, 
only certification of first grade is granted. 

For botany and zoology, which do not constitute a special sub- 
ject of instruction in the higher classes, first grade signifies that the 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 4I 

candidate has demonstrated thorough scientific knowledge in 
this subject (compare § 9, i, B). 

3. It is presupposed in every case that the requirements for a 
first-grade certificate are at least equal to those required for the 
second grade in the subject concerned. 

§ 12. Religion 

A . Of candidates who desire to qualify for instruction in evan- 
gelical religion, there is required: — 

a. For second grade: familiarity with the biblical history 

of the Old and particularly of the New Testament on 
the basis of a thorough study of the Holy Scriptures ; 
general bibhcal knowledge and acquaintance with 
biblical antiquities; knowledge of the history of the 
early church in the first centuries and history of the 
Reformation; understanding of the institutions of 
the evangelical church and its doctrines according to 
the fundamental writings, especially the Heidelberg 
catechism and the Augsburg confession of Luther, 
and particularly also, familiarity with their character- 
istic features; acquaintance with the order of the 
church year as well as with the evangelical psalms 
and the Uturgy. 

b. For the first grade, in addition : the ability, gained by 

the study of an introduction to theology {Einleitungs- 
wissenschaft) , of bibUcal theology, and of scientific 
exegesis, to explain the Holy Scriptures and especially 
the New Testament in the original ; an acquaintance, 
resting upon a survey of the historical development 
of the church, with the present evangelical church with 
reference to its creed and constitution In distinction 
from other religious societies; knowledge of its faith 
and customs, especially with reference to their histor- 
ical development, and the ability to show their biblical 
foundation and to present them simply and clearly. 



42 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

B. Of candidates who wish to quahfy for instruction in the 
CathoKc religion, there is required : — 

a. For second grade: famiUarity with the biblical history 

of the Old and especially of the New Testament; 
bibhcal knowledge and acquaintance with the sacred 
antiquities of the people of Israel; thorough knowl- 
edge of the most important periods of church history ; 
famiharity with the teachings of the Catholic faith 
and customs as they are given in the Roman cate- 
chism ; a thorough understanding of the church year, 
which quaUfies for the instruction of pupils in the 
spirit of the individual festival periods. 

b. For first grade, in addition: the abiUty gained through 

the study of introduction to theology, as well as of 
bibhcal history and theology, to explain suggested 
portions of the New Testament according to the 
original; the abihty to discuss simply and clearly 
questions of faith and customs with reference to the 
positive and apologetic foundation of the Catholic 
teaching; knowledge of the history of the Cathohc 
church and of the development of its teaching in dis- 
tinction from other churches and rehgious commu- 
nities, and the ability to present the significance of 
the authoritative facts and personalities in the whole 
development of the Christian church. 

§ 13. Philosopkische Propddeutik [an elementary course in 
philosophy] 

Of candidates who wish to secure certification in Philosopkische 
Propadeutik it is required that they meet in a thoroughly satis- 
factory manner the conditions set for the general examination in 
philosophical training (§10), especially in the home essay, the sub- 
ject of which, for these candidates, must be chosen from the sphere 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 43 

of philosophy ; and, further, that, along with a general survey of 
the history of philosophy and of the problems of its principal divi- 
sions, they possess thorough knowledge of at least one of these prob- 
lems or of one of the most important philosophical systems ; and 
that they show the abUity to comprehend philosophical questions 
clearly and definitely. 

§ 14. German 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in German, 
there is required: — 

a. For second grade : thorough knowledge of the elements of new 

High German grammar, and acquaintance with the his- 
tory of the new High German written language ; thorough 
knowledge of the classical works of the newer literature, 
especially in the fields applicable to the training of youth, 
and a survey of the course of development of new High 
German literature ; acquaintance with the outlines of 
rhetoric, poetics, and metrics, as well as with the old Ger- 
man legends important for the school. 

b. For first grade, in addition : a mastery of Middle High Ger- 

man which qualifies for reading the easier works without 
difficulty and for explaining them with grammatical and 
lexical accuracy; a knowledge of the course of develop- 
ment of German literature as a whole, at least for the 
Middle High German and newer period, based upon ex- 
tended reading; familiarity with poetics and German 
metrics, as well as with those principles of rhetoric a 
knowledge of which is necessary for instruction in the 
preparation of German essays in the higher classes; in 
addition, according to the choice of the candidate, eiiher 
acquaintance with the principal results of historical gram- 
mar and knowledge of the elements of Gothic and Old 
High German, or certification in introduction to philosophy 
(§ 13). 



44 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

§ 15. Latin and Greek 

Of candidates who wish to secure certification in Latin and 
Greek are required: — 

For second grade: thorough knowledge of Latin and Greek 
grammar and practice in the written use of both languages to the 
extent of readiness in translating suitable exercises with gram- 
matical correctness and, at least as far as Latin is concerned, 
without notable defects in style; the ability, gained from a 
systematic and thorough reading of the classics, to understand 
extracts from the writings of authors suitable for Secunda in the 
Gymnasia, with grammatical and lexical accuracy, and except 
in places of special difficulty, to translate fluently. Candidates 
must be so well acquainted with Greek and Roman history, in- 
cluding the history of literature, with antiquities, mythology, and 
metrics, that they can give the essential explanations of school 
authors for middle classes, and use good sources intelligently when 
preparing lessons. 

For the first grade, in addition : a connected, well-founded knowl- 
edge of Latin and Greek grammar ; facility in the written use of 
Latin; grammatical certainty in writing Greek, besides some 
practice in speaking Latin ; considerable knowledge of the Greek 
and Roman classics, especially of those within the range of reading 
for Gymnasia, along with scientific training in the method of ex- 
planation ; familiarity with metrics as far as the poets to be read 
in Gymnasia are concerned, besides some practice in the proper 
recitation of verses ; knowledge of the development of Greek and 
Roman literature, especially of the classical period ; a scientific 
knowledge of the chief periods of Roman and Greek history, state 
institutions, private fife, religion, mythology, and the philosophy 
of the Greeks and Romans ; understanding of archaeology as far 
as it is necessary to make the lessons more interesting, through 
proper choice of means of illustration. Candidates must further- 
more show familiarity with the development of philology. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 45 

§ 1 6. Hebrew 

Of candidates who wish to quahfy for instruction in Hebrew, 
there is required a scientific, coherent knowledge of the Hebrew 
etyinology and grammar, and familiarity, founded on individual 
readings, with a large part of the historic, poetic, and prophetic 
scriptures of the Old Testament; abihty to understand and to 
translate with grammatical and lexical exactitude a passage not 
too difficult from the Old Testament written in a text marked 
with points ; knowledge of the chief points of the history of the 
people of Israel and of the Old Testament. Proper emphasis should 
be attached to the right form and legibility of the Hebrew hand- 
writing (§ 29). 

§ 17. French 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in French, 
there is required a knowledge of elementary Latin grammar, in 
addition to ability to understand and to translate at least easy 
passages from school authors, such as Caesar. Furthermore : — 

For the second grade: knowledge of the elements of phonetics, 
a thorough mastery of correct pronunciation, familiarity with 
etymology, syntax, and synonyms, mastery of a sufficient fund of 
words and idioms, and some experience in the actual use of the 
spoken language ; general understanding of the metrical structure 
of modern French verses, and a survey of the development of 
French literature since the seventeenth century; acquaintance 
with the most important works of the most prominent poets and 
prose writers ; ability to translate ordinary writers into good Ger- 
man, and to make reproductions in the foreign language free from 
errors in grammar and style. 

For the first grade, in addition : in the written and oral use of 
the language, not only absolute grammatical certainty along with 
scientific justification of this grammatical knowledge, but also 
familiarity with a larger vocabulary and more idioms of the lan- 
guage, as well as sufficient ability to apply them for all educa- 



46 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

tional purposes ; a thorough knowledge of the historical develop- 
ment of the language since its separation from the Latin ; a good 
knowledge of the general development of French literature in 
connection with detailed readings of several prominent literary 
works from earUer periods and the present time ; insight into the 
laws of French metrical structure of ancient and modern times, 
and knowledge of the history of France as far as it is required for 
the appropriate explanation of ordinary school authors. 

Note. — An especially thorough knowledge of modern litera- 
ture and a superior command of the modern language may com- 
pensate for a less thorough knowledge of the historical develop- 
ment of the language. 

§ 18. English 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in English, 
there is required a knowledge of elementary Latin grammar, in 
addition to abihty to understand and to translate at least easy 
passages from school authors, such as Caesar. Furthermore : — 

For the second grade: knowledge of the elements of phonetics 
and a thorough mastery of correct pronunciation, famiUarity 
with et3miology, syntax, and synonyms; mastery of a sufficient 
fund of words and idioms, and some experience in the actual use 
of the spoken language ; a survey of the development of English 
literature since Shakespeare; thorough acquaintance with some 
of the most important works of the most prominent poets and 
prose writers; abihty to translate ordinary writers into good 
German, and to make reproductions in the foreign language free 
from errors in grammar and style. 

For the first grade, in addition : in the written and oral use of 
the language, not only absolute grammatical confidence along with 
scientific justification of this knowledge, but also famiHarity with 
a larger vocabulary and more idioms of the language, as well as 
a sufficient ability to apply them for all educational purposes ; a 
thorough insight into the historical development of the Ian- 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 47 

guage since the old English period; knowledge of the develop- 
ment of literature in connection with extensive readings of several 
literary works from earHer periods and modern times; under- 
standing of the laws of Enghsh metrical structure from ancient 
and modern times, and knowledge of England's history as far as it 
is required for the appropriate explanation of the ordinary school 
authors. 

Note. — An especially thorough knowledge of modern litera- 
ture and a superior command of the modern language may com- 
pensate for a less thorough knowledge of the historical develop- 
ment of the language. 

§ 19. History 

Of candidates who wish to quaHfy for instruction in history, 
there is required knowledge of Latin and Greek as far as they are 
necessary for the understanding of the historical sources written 
in these languages. Furthermore : — 

For the second grade: a complete survey, founded on systematic 
geographical and chronological knowledge, of events related to 
universal history, especially of Greece and Rome, Germany and 
Prussia ; acquaintance with the development of the Constitution 
in Sparta, Athens, and Rome, and particularly in Germany and 
Prussia ; a comprehensive imderstanding of the Prussian state and 
of the German imperial constitution, and familiarity with some 
of the most important works on national history. 

For the first grade, in addition : a more exact knowledge of the 
course of development of universal history and understanding of 
the relations and internal connections of events; evidence of a 
more thorough knowledge of the history of constitutions and civ- 
ilizations, — in antiquity, with reference to the Roman-Greek 
history, in the Middle Ages and modern times, with reference to 
the national history ; knowledge and understanding of the most 
important industrial and social changes since the end of the 
Thirty Years War ; familiarity with the most important historical 
sources for the chief topics to be studied, and with the principles 



48 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

of their use as well as with the literary sources of the science of 
history and with important modern historical works. 

§ 20. Geography 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in geography, 
there is required : — 

For the second grade: a thorough knowledge of the fundamental 
laws of physical, mathematical, and poHtical geography, and of 
physiography ; a broad knowledge of the history of discoveries and 
of the most important tendencies of world commerce in different 
periods, and especially of the development of the German colonies ; 
familiarity with the use of the globe, rehefs, and maps; ability 
to explain the fundamental facts of mathematical geography by 
means of simple illustrative material, and some faciUty in map 
drawing. 

For the first grade, in addition : famiharity with the principles 
of mathematical geography and, as far as they can be proved by 
elementary mathematics, with their proofs also; knowledge of 
the physical, and the most important geological relations of 
physiography; connected knowledge of the political geography 
of the present time ; survey of the development of the civilized 
nations, geographically considered; and acquaintance with the 
chief facts of ethnology. 

§ 21. Pure Mathematics 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in mathe- 
matics, there is required : — 

For the second grade: a thorough knowledge of elementary 
mathematics and familiarity with analytical geometry of planes, 
especially with the principal properties of conic sections as well 
as with the fundamental principles of differential and integral 
calculus. 

For the first grade, in addition : such an acquaintance with the 
principles of higher geometry, arithmetic, and algebra, of higher 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 49 

analysis and analytical mechanics, that the candidate can solve 
a fairly difficult problem in this field without assistance. 

§ 22. Applied Mathematics 
Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in apphed 
mathematics, there is required in addition to a certificate in pure 
mathematics: knowledge of descriptive geometry including the 
principles of central projection, and corresponding facility in 
drawing ; familiarity with the mathematical methods of technical 
mechanics, especially with graphical statics, with elementary sur- 
veying and the elements of advanced surveying, and with the 
theory of adjustment of errors in observation. 

§ 23. Physics 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in physics, 
there is required : — 

For the second grade: knowledge of the more important phe- 
nomena and laws of the whole sphere of this science, as well as the 
abihty to prove these laws mathematically as far as this is possible 
without the appKcation of higher mathematics ; acquaintance with 
the apparatus required for school instruction and practice in its 
use. 

For the first grade, in addition : a more exact knowledge of 

experimental physics and its appUcations; famiharity with the 

fundamental investigations in one of the more important fields of 

theoretical physics, and a general survey of the whole sphere of 

this science. 

§ 24. Chemistry and Mineralogy 

Of candidates who wish to quaKfy for instruction in chemistry 
and mineralogy, there is required : — 

For the second grade: knowledge of the laws of chemical com- 
binations and of the most important theories of their constitution ; 
famiharity with the separation, properties, and inorganic com- 
binations of the more important elements with their significance 

£ 



50 TRAINING OF TEACHERS EOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

in the economy of nature and with the most important facts in 
chemical technology; practice in experimenting; knowledge of 
the most common minerals in regard to their crystalline form, 
their physical and chemical properties, and their practical use, as 
well as with the most important mountain ranges and geological 
formations, especially with those of Germany. 

For the first grade, in addition : a more thorough knowledge of 
inorganic chemistry and of those combinations within the range 
of organic chemistry which are of greater significance for physio- 
logical or technical use, as well as familiarity with the most im- 
portant chemical methods and theories; facility in qualitative 
analysis and sufficient practice in quantitative analysis, including 
elementary analysis of organic materials. 

§ 25. Botany and Zoology 

Of candidates who wish to quaHfy for instruction in botany 
and zoology, there is required : — 

For the second grade: knowledge gained through personal ob- 
servation of the more common home plants, and of local animals, 
and those of particularly characteristic forms from foreign coun- 
tries; knowledge of anatomy and the fundamental laws of the 
physiology of the human body, with special reference to hygiene ; 
a survey of the classification of the plant and animal kingdoms; 
knowledge of the most important natural families and of some 
representatives of the lower plant world, as well as of the most 
important classes of the vertebrates and articulate animals, also 
of some representatives of the rest of the animal kingdom and 
their geographical distribution ; famiharity with the fundamental 
principles of anatomy, physiology, and biology of plants, and 
knowledge of the structure and the life of animals, also some prac- 
tice in drawing animal and plant forms. 

For the first grade, in addition : a greater familiarity with the 
principles of anatomy, physiology, and biology of plants and 
animals, as well as with the classifications of the animal and plant 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 5 1 

kingdoms; a more thorough knowledge of the anatomy and 
physiology of man. 

Note. — The certificate to teach botany and zoology may be 
given for the first grade (in the sense of § 34, i), even if the candi- 
date has the teaching Hcense in only one of the two subjects for 
the first grade, and in the other subject for the second grade. 

§ 26. Polish 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in Polish, 
there is required : — 

For the second grade: certainty in the grammar of the modern 
PoKsh language ; knowledge of the course of development of Polish 
literature, and famiharity gained through personal reading with 
the most prominent hterary productions, especially with those 
from the sixteenth century on; ability to write modern PoKsh 
correctly; and facility in conducting conversation lessons. 

For the first grade, in addition : more extensive reading and 
acquaintance, founded on the most important facts of old Slovenian 
phonetics and syntax, with the course of development of Polish 
phonetics and syntax and familiarity with the formation and 
significance of modern PoHsh words. 

§ 27. Danish 

Of candidates who wish to qualify for instruction in Danish, 
there is required : — 

For the second grade: knowledge and grammatical understand- 
ing of that form of the Danish language which educated Danish 
people of the present use in conversation and writing ; abiUty to 
speak and write the Danish language, on the whole, correctly ; a 
more thorough knowledge of the Danish hterature since Holberg, 
founded on personal reading and familiarity with the so-called 
Provindslove and Kaempevise (Folkeviser) of the older times. 

For the first grade, in addition : such knowledge of the relation 
of the Danish language to German (High and Low German) as is 



52 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

necessary for the scientific understanding of the present form of 
the Danish language. 

§ 28. Theses {Schriftliche Hausarbeiien) 

1. The candidate receives two theses for preparation at home: 
one in a subject required for the general examination (§ 10) and 
the other in a subject for which the candidate seeks a certificate 
of the first grade. Special wishes of the candidates concerning 
the choice of the theses (§ 6, i) are to be respected as far as possible. 

2. Examination papers in the domain of classical philology 
must be written in Latin; those from modern languages in the 
language concerned, and all others must be written in German. 

3. A limit of sixteen weeks, beginning with the day of delivery 
of the themes, is granted to finish both theses. At the expira- 
tion of that term at the latest a fair copy of these theses must be 
presented to the chairman of the examination committee. The 
committee can grant an extension of that term up to sixteen weeks, 
if a plausible excuse is given at least a week before the expiration 
of the term. The application for another prolongation of the 
time must be made in due time to the chairman of the examina- 
tion committee and needs the approval of the minister. 

If the candidate neglects to hand in his papers, he is considered 
not to have passed the examination. If, however, afterwards 
valid reasons for his failure can be given to the chairman of the 
examination committee, he is excused, and new thesis subjects 
are given him. 

4. After having finished each thesis, the candidate must declare 
that he has prepared it alone, and that he has used no other helps 
than those quoted by him. The same declaration must be given 
in regard to the drawings handed in (§ 30, 2). If it is proved that 
this declaration is not true, the examination is considered a failure ; 
if only after delivery of the certificate it is discovered that the 
declaration was not true, disciplinary measures are used. 

5. The chairman of the examination committee appoints the 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 53 

members, who are responsible for the criticisms of the individual 
examination papers. 

6. A dissertation (§ 6, 2, e and f) written by the candidate, to 
which the regulations under 4 would have to be applied, can, upon 
request, be used as one of the two theses. After having spoken 
with the candidate concerning the subject, to which the regulations 
under 2 would apply, the chairman of the examination committee 
decides such a request. 

If a Prussian faculty of philosophy has recognized the disserta- 
tion presented as sufl&cient for the attainment of the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy, there stiU remains the question whether 
this dissertation can be considered with reference to its content 
as equivalent to a thesis. 

7. A thesis may not be used for the attainment of the degree 
of Doctor of Philosophy or for publication until the examination is 
finished and the certificate has been delivered. All theses are to re- 
main with the documents of the commission, but the authors can 
have copies made at their own expense. 

§ 29. Examination Papers (Klausuraroeiten) 
The board of examiners may ask the candidate to prepare in a 
comparatively short time (three hours at most) an examination 
paper on any subject of the special examination. For foreign 
languages the preparation of such papers is, as a rule, obligatory. 

§ 30. Evidence of Practical Ability 

1. Acquaintance with the most important apparatus and its 
manipulation (§ 23) must be proved through performance of sev- 
eral of the easier experiments ; practice in chemical experiments 
(§ 24), through performance of an analysis, unless the ofl&cial cer- 
tificates give evidence of the necessary practice. Practice in the 
manipulation of geographical means of illustration has to be proved 
in the same way. 

2. In order to show ability in map drawing (§ 20), in geometri- 



54 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

cal drawing (§ 22), and in simple drawing of animal and plant 
forms (§ 25), candidates who wish to qualify in these subjects 
must present with their theses drawings made entirely by them- 
selves (see § 28, 4). 

§31. Withdrawal from the Oral Examination 

1. If the theses (§ 28 and § 29) of a candidate leave no doubt 
whatever that even in case of a very favorable result of the oral 
examination the candidate could not even be admitted to a sup- 
plementary examination (§ 34, 2), the examination committee is 
free to refuse to admit him to the oral examination and to declare 
the examination a failure. Under such circumstances they stiU 
have this right, even if the candidate himself wishes to withdraw 
from the examination. 

2. Admission to the oral examination is not to be given if sub- 
sequently vahd doubts as to the candidate's moral conduct have 
arisen (§ 7, 2). The chairman of the examination corhmittee is 
competent to decide such a case. 

§ 32. Summons to the Oral Examination 

1. The summons of the candidate to the oral examination and 
the inquiries (§ 29 and § 30) connected with this examination must 
be communicated in writing by the chairman of the examination 
committee. 

2. If the candidate neglects the appointed date, he is consid- 
ered not to have passed the examination. If, however, valid 
reasons for his nonappearance can afterwards be given to the 
chairman of the board of examiners, he is excused, and a new time 
for the oral examination must be appointed. 

§ 33. Conduct of the Oral Examination 

I. The order of succession of the parts of the oral examination, 
including the requirements (§ 29 and § 30) connected with it, is 
fixed by the chairman of the board of examiners. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 55 

Upon a special request of the candidate, to be handed in with 
the theses, the chairman of the committee can separate the general 
examination and the subject examination within a summer semes- 
ter or a winter semester, so that there is at most three months 
between them. 

It is to be especially noted, however, that the result of such a 
subject examination can be communicated oraUy to the candidate 
as soon as it is finished, but that a certificate can in no case be given 
before the close of the general examination (§ 35). 

2. At the general examination as weU as at every subject 
examination at least three members of the committee, including 
the chairman, must, as a rule, be present. Unavoidable exceptions 
must be mentioned in the minutes ; the presence of two members 
is, however, absolutely necessary. 

3. In the general examination not more than four candidates, 
in the subject examination not more than two candidates, may, 
as a rule, be admitted together. 

4. It is not permitted to distribute the different phases of one 
subject among several examiners; on the contrary, it is recom- 
mended, where possible, to assign the examination in closely related 
subjects (see § 9, 2) to one person. 

5. The special examination in French, English, Polish, or 
Danish is to be conducted in part in the language concerned, so that 
the facihty of the candidate in its oral use can be shown. 

6. During the examination minutes of the general examination 
and of the examination in special subjects must be made and 
signed by the members of the committee who are present. The 
minutes remain with the documents of the commission. 

7. The result of the general examination must be determined 
for every candidate according to his theses and the work done 
by him in the oral examination, if necessary, through a majority 
vote of the members of the committee ; shght mistakes in one part 
of the examination can be offset by good work done in other parts, 
and the general impression of the work done by the candidate 



56 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

has to be taken into consideration ; if the votes are even, the chair- 
man decides the matter. At the close of the minutes of the general 
examination it must be stated whether the candidate has passed 
the examination or not. If the work done by the candidate is 
very much better than is required in the general examination, 
the committee can certificate him for instruction in the subject 
concerned. 

Immediately after each subject examination the examiner must, 
on the basis of the answers given by the candidate, state his 
opinion in the minutes whether the certificate can be given and 
for which of the two grades (§ 11). The examiner is permitted to 
justify his opinion, and the other members of the committee who 
were present at the examination are also permitted to express 
a dissenting judgment. The candidate may be certificated to 
instruct in the first grade, though in his appUcation he intended 
to quaUfy only for the second grade. 

8. If the candidate withdraws during the oral examination, 
the committee has to decide whether the examination is a failure 
or whether a new date can be assigned him. 

§ 34. The General Result of the Examination 

At the close of the entire examination, the examination com- 
mittee must decide on the basis of the judgment recorded in the 
minutes, the result of the general examination and of the subject 
examination, whether the candidate has passed the examination 
or not. 

I. The candidate has passed the examination if his general 
examination was satisfactory and if he qualified in at least one of 
the subjects named in § 9, i, 5, 1-15 for the first grade and in two 
more subjects for the second grade ; consult § 9, 2 on the required 
combination of subjects. 

If the candidate has passed the examination, the examination 
committee has to decide whether, according to the entire result of 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 57 

the written and oral examination, the certificate is to be marked 
satisfactory, good, or excellent. If the certificate is to be marked 
satisfactory, good, or excellent, the candidate must have qualified 
in at least two of the subjects quoted under § 9, i, 5, 1-15 for the 
first grade; if, however, the examination in the introduction to 
philosophy has served to qualify the candidate for German, it may 
not be counted again (§ 14, b). 

2. If the examination has not been passed or has been con- 
sidered equal to a failure, the examination committee has to decide 
whether another examination is permitted (§ 37), and whether 
a repetition of the entire examination (Wiederkolungsprufung) or 
only a supplementary examination (ErgdnzungsprUfung) is neces- 
sary. 

The examination committee must determine the time before the 
expiration of which the examinations (Wiederholungs- oder Ergdn- 
zungsprUfung) must take place. 

§ 35. Certificate 

A certificate of the result of the examination must be given to 
the candidate in any case, whether he has passed the examination 
or not, or whether the examination has been considered equal to 
a failure. 

In the certificate the full name of the candidate, the occupation 
and the home of his father, day and place of birth, confession, and 
the course of education must be given ; it must be especially stated 
where and when the candidate passed the leaving examination 
(Reifeprilfung) , at what universities he studied and how long at 
each, when he applied for admission to the examination, and when 
he finished it ; if the candidate has served in the army, when and 
where he served must be stated. 

The report on the candidate's theses or on the dissertation 
which has been considered the equivalent must be added also 
(§28, 6), and: — 



58 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

1. If the examination has been passed, the statement regarding 
it according to § 34, i, without reasons for the restdt, but with the 
exact statement of the subject and the grade for which the candi- 
date has qualified. 

2. If the examination has not been passed, the report concern- 
ing it, according to § 34, 2, must be stated ; the time must also be 
stated within which the application for the second examination or 
for the supplementary examination has to be made; for the supple- 
mentary examination, on the one hand, the parts of the examina- 
tion in which the candidate has satisfied the requirements, as in i , 
and, on the other hand, the parts of the examination for which 
the candidate has to pass a supplementary examination, have to be 
accurately stated. 

3. If the examination has been considered equal to a failure, the 
reasons therefor have to be stated also according to § 28, 3 and 4 ; 
§31, I ; §32, 2; ^ S3, 8. 

§ 36. Note on Academic Certificates 
In returning the academic certificates (§ 6, 2, b) to the candi- 
date, the chairman of the commission must briefly state upon 
them the result of the application and the examination. 

§ 37. Second Examination and Supplementary Examination 

1. The same commission before which the first examination was 
passed is competent for the second examination as well as for the 
supplementary examination (§ 34, 2). Admission to one of these 
examinations before another commission can only be granted ex- 
ceptionally and needs the approval of the minister. 

2. The application for a second examination or a supplementary 
examination must be made at the latest within two years after 
deUvery of the certificate of the preceding examination. If the 
second examination or the supplementary examination is a failure 
or is considered equal to a failure, another examination can only 
be permitted with the approval of the minister. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 59 

3. In every case a certificate concerning the result of the sec- 
ond examination or the supplementary examination has to be 
given, in which reference should be made to the certificate which 
the candidate has already won. If the examination was passed, 
the regulations under § 35, i concerning certification are to be 
applied. 

§ 38. Extension Examination 

1. Any one who has passed the examination for the position of 
a teacher for higher schools can within the six following years 
apply for an extension examination either to qualify for instruc- 
tion in other subjects, or to extend the certification already granted 
in order to raise the final standard of the certificate, if the royal 
provincial school board {Konigliches Provinzial Schulkollegiuw) 
in whose district the person concerned is already occupied or will 
soon be occupied in the service of the school, recommends admis- 
sion to such an examination. 

2. The commission before which the candidate formerly passed 
the examination for the higher schools and the commission of the 
advising royal provincial school board are responsible for the 
extension examination. 

• 3. In each of the two cases quoted under i, an extension 
examination can be tried only once. 

4. As to the certificate to be given, the regulations stated under 
§ 37, 3 and § 34, I are to be rationally applied. 

§ 39, Special Regulations for Clergymen and for Candidates 
in Theology 

Candidates for the ministerial ofiice and clergymen of one of 
the Christian churches who have passed the examinations for the 
ministry obtain a certificate for instruction in higher schools if 
they can prove in an oral examination their qualification for in- 
struction in rehgion for the first grade, and if they can prove further- 
more through a thesis and an oral examination the qualification for 



6o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

instruction in Hebrew (§ i6) and in one of the subjects quoted un- 
der § 9, I, B, under 2 to 5, 7 to 11, and 13 to 15. If the candidate 
wishes to qualify for instruction in the first grade in another sub- 
ject besides rehgion and Hebrew, a thesis on the subject concerned 
is required (§ 28). 

In granting the certificate the regulations in § 35 must be ration- 
ally applied. 

§ 40. Fees 

1. Fees are to be paid immediately after admission to the exam- 
ination to the treasurer indicated by the chairman of the com- 
mission. 

If a candidate proves through valid certificates that he has been 
obliged through illness or other exceptional difficulties to abandon 
the examination which he has begun, the fees will be returned. 
In all other cases they remain in the official treasury whether 
the examination has been finished or not. 

2. Exclusive of the stamp to be placed on the certificate, the 
fees amount to 60 marks for the entire examination, 30 marks 
for the second examination or the supplementary examination, 
and also for those mentioned in § 39. In case of the division of 
the examination into two parts, permitted according to § 33, i, a 
special fee of 30 marks has to be paid in addition to the fees of 
60 marks for the entire examination. 

§ 41. When do these Examination Regulations become Effective? 
The present examination regulations for instruction in higher 
schools and the decrees issued to supplement or to change these 
regulations become effective on April i, 1899, after nullification 
of the regulations of February 5, 1887, for instruction in higher 

schools. 

§ 42. Transitionary Regulations 

The applications coming in before April, 1899, must be treated 
according to the old examination regulations unless the use of 
the new regulation is particularly requested. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 6 1 

The extension of a certificate granted conditionally according to 
the old regulations must take place according to the requirements of 
the old regulations. If the certificate has been dehvered before 
April, 1899, the appKcation for the supplementary examination 
must be made before April i, 1901 ; if the certificate has been de- 
Kvered after April i, 1899, the time for the application is limited 
to two years from the day of the delivery of the certificate. 

The extension of a certificate granted unconditionally according 
to the old regulations must follow the new regulations after April i , 
1899. If the certificate has been delivered before April i, 1899, 
the appHcation for an extension examination can be made up to 
April I, 1905 ; if it has been delivered after April i, 1899, the 
time for appUcation is extended over six years from the day of 
the delivery of the certificate. 

Regulations for the Practical Training of Candidates 
FOR THE Position of Teacher in Higher Schools in 
Prussia, from March 15, 1908 



In order to obtain certification for teaching in higher schools, 
the candidates must be trained practically for their future pro- 
fession after having passed the scientific examination. This 
training is carried out under the guidance of capable educators and 
under the supervision of the Royal Provincial School Board. 

§2 

The practical training lasts two years and consists of the Semi- 
narjahr and the Probejahr following. 

A. During the Seminarjahr the candidates must acquaint 
themselves with the theory of education and the theory of teaching 
in their appUcation to higher schools, and with the methods of 
instruction in individual subjects ; they must also be trained for 
their practical work as teachers and educators. 



62 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

B. The Prohejahr is organized especially for the independent 
demonstration of the teaching abUity attained in the Seminarjahr ; 
it should, as a rule, be passed in those schools which have not 
been used for the work of the Seminarjahr. 

A. The Seminarjahr 

§3 
Sometime before the beginning of a summer or a winter semes- 
ter candidates must apply to the provincial school board in whose 
district they want to pass the Seminarjahr. With the application 
for admission must be sent : — 

1. The original of the certificate or the preliminary certificate 
concerning the scientific or subject examination already passed. 

2. A certificate from an ofiicial physician attesting that the 
candidate has the necessary health and the physical qualifications 
for the profession of a teacher ; especially that he has no percep- 
tible tendencies to chronic diseases as well as no defects of speech, 
and that his sight and hearing are sufiicient. 

3. A statement concerning his financial condition and the 
availability of the means necessary to provide for his support 
during the period of practical training. 

4. A statement concerning his military status. 

The minister may assign the candidate to another district. 

§4 

The assignment of candidates is made twice a year, at Easter, 
and in the autumn, by the provincial school board, to seminars 
in which the school year begins at these times. The assignment 
is primarily determined by the subjects which the candidate is 
prepared to teach. 

Not more than six candidates may be assigned yearly to any 
seminar by the provincial school board. In their distribution 
the teaching subjects of the candidates as weU as the specialties 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 63 

of the different seminars have to be taken into consideration; 
at the same time care must be taken that several representatives 
of the same subjects are not assigned to the same seminar. 

Candidates whose moral integrity is seriously doubted are to 
be excluded from the assignment ; this step, however, needs the ap- 
proval of the minister. 

A candidate is not permitted to change from one institution to 
another within the Seminarjahr. The employment of candidates 
outside the place in which the seminar is located needs the approval 
of the minister. 

§S 

The director and the teachers named by the provincial school 
board are responsible for the systematic training and practice of 
the candidates (§ 2, A) according to the following regulations: — 

a. For the instruction of the candidates weekly sessions of at 
least two hours each are to be held during the whole year (vaca- 
tion time excepted) under leadership of the director or one of the 
teachers named; to these sessions the other teachers are to be 
admitted also. In these meetings the academic form of lectures is 
to be omitted as far as possible ; on the contrary, emphasis should 
be laid on discussions and instruction concerning the requirements 
of practical school Ufe. The following subjects in particular must 
be treated : — 

The theory of education and teaching in higher schools, es- 
pecially methods of teaching the particular subjects for which the 
candidates have been certificated. A historical survey of the 
development of the higher school systems and of important repre- 
sentatives of pedagogy, as weU as discussion of important publica- 
tions in the field of education and instruction at the present time. 

Administration and organization of higher schools, official 
courses of study, examination regulations, and rules concerning 
certificates and promotions. 

The principles of school discipline as far as possible in connec- 



64 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

tion with definite events, and also in connection with conference 
records concerning these events ; school regulations ; relatbns 
between school and home ; the principles of school hygiene with 
special reference to the interior equipment of schoolrooms and 
to school administration. 

Supervisory authorities, the assignment of duties to ieachers 
and class masters, the form of official reports and petitions. 

Assignments for observation of lessons as well as preparation 
for practice teaching (see b) and for the correction of home 
work; discussions of teaching problems in their personal re- 
lations. 

According to the requirements of the chairman, the candidates 
must deliver short reports, as previously mentioned, on those 
subjects lying within their sphere; they must also give lectures; 
special emphasis should be laid on the training of the candidate 
in fluent speaking. 

Minutes of these seminar meetings must be kept by the candi- 
dates, which, after verification by the chairman, must be signed at 
the next meeting. The provincial school boards should take care 
that from time to time a part of these minutes, as well as of the 
topics given to the candidates for their reports and their work 
(§ 5, £?), are exchanged between the seminars for the mutual stimu- 
lation of teachers and directors. 

b. In close connection with this instruction the candidates are 
systematically occupied with practical exercises in teaching. These 
consist in observation lessons and in their own practice teaching. 
The instructions of the director are authoritative for these obser- 
vation lessons, which must be arranged according to certain points 
of view. 

In these observations the candidates should gain a general view 
of the problems of the school ; they should also become acquainted 
with the technique of teaching special subjects in the different 
classes, and they should get through observation an idea of the 
viewpoints and peculiarities of the classes in which they themselves 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 65 

are to teach later. With all candidates importance should be at- 
tached to the observation of German lessons. 

The teachers whose classes are to be observed by the candidates 
must be informed in advance ; they are obhged to explain to the 
candidates the standing of the class, the general aim of instruction, 
and the special teaching problems as well as the best way to solve 
them, and thus contribute their share to the practical training of 
the candidates. 

Practice teaching begins as soon as the candidate feels some- 
what at home in the institution, and it takes place under the leader- 
ship of the director with the cooperation of the regular teachers 
of the subjects concerned. In these lessons, however, the teaching 
topics which at first are limited in time and importance, have to 
be gradually extended according to the ability of the candidates, 
so that they may have the opportunity to test their own power 
and to be trained in independent instruction. For these lessons 
the candidates must outhne the subject matter, and, as long as the 
supervising teacher thinks it necessary, they must prepare a lesson 
plan. It is recommended that even those candidates who did not 
qualify for instruction in German should have some practice in 
German instruction. 

About once a month the candidates must teach lessons at 
which, as a rule, in addition to the director, the regular teacher of 
that subject and the other candidates must be present. These 
lessons are to be discussed in the general meetings with reference 
to their plan and development (see under a); in this discussion 
attention must be drawn to mistakes which the candidates have 
made in their preparation, in the pedagogical treatment of the 
pupils, and in their own attitude before the class. Care should 
be taken that the candidates get acquainted with the means of 
instruction and their use; for this purpose they should be 
assigned particular duties in the organization and utilization of 
collections, especially those which are used in the teaching of 
natural history and geography. 



66 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The candidates must also take part in the direction of play 
hours and, when necessary, also of work hours, as well as in the 
physical exercises of the pupils and in school excursions. 

As far as the local school conditions permit, candidates some- 
times should be given opportunity to attend lessons in the 
seminars of elementary teachers and in different kinds of ele- 
mentary schools. 

The teachers in charge of the candidates are obUged to report 
their special observations from time to time to the director and to 
seek his advice. 

c. All candidates must, as a riile, be invited to examinations 
and teachers' conferences. Upon request they must answer in- 
quiries about pupils as far as those taught by them personally are 
concerned. At these conferences the candidates should also be 
given practice in writing minutes. 

d. The candidates are recommended to keep a short diary con- 
cerning their occupation during the Seminarjahr, especially con- 
cerning the lessons which they themselves have given and have 
observed. About two months before the end of the Seminarjahr 
every candidate must hand in a thesis assigned to him by the 
director. These theses, in the choice of which the reasonable 
wishes of the candidates should be considered, are as a rule so 
constructed that they include theoretical considerations and prac- 
tical applications. They should not involve the treatment of an 
elaborate literary subject, but they should give the candidate the 
opportunity to work out a literary subject within his sphere and 
to connect it with his own observations and experiences. Even 
if the candidate has had a very extensive teaching experience, 
exemption from this final thesis is not granted. 

§6 

The director and the teachers assigned to the training of the 
candidates must, if necessary, be partly reUeved from their own 
teaching. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 67 

§7 

At least three weeks before the end of the Seminarjahr the 
director must present to the provincial school board a detailed 
characterization of every individual on the basis of personal ob- 
servations made during their training (for every candidate on a 
special blank). In this characterization are to be treated: the 
conduct and activity of the candidate during the Seminarjahr, the 
ambition shown by him, his capacity for scientific work, his ability 
to teach and the stage reached by him in his practical training, as 
well as his state of health, his financial position, his social attitude, 
and his behavior towards his colleagues, so that the supervising 
authorities may be acquainted with special capacities as well as with 
striking shortcomings in the candidate's conduct, ambitions, and 
attainments. The theses (§ 5, c^), with the criticism of the director 
or the teacher in charge and the application for admission to the 
Probejahr, must accompany the characterization. In the appli- 
cation for admission the candidates may express desires in regard 
to the place of the Probejahr, which is generally spent in the same 
province as the Seminarjahr ; the provincial school board will 
consider these desires if they facihtate the support or the further 
education of the candidate. If, however, the provincial school 
board thinks it advisable to order a provisional employment of the 
candidate, such desires must be disregarded. 

Four weeks after the end of the Seminarjahr the director must 
report to the provincial school board concerning the work of the 
year. In the first year of the existence of a seminar the report 
must contain a very exact description of the arrangements made ; 
but later it is to be limited to shorter statements of any altera- 
tions in methods and to extraordinary events. A copy of the 
characterizations of the candidates, which have been mentioned 
above, is to be added also. 

In the case of candidates whose admission to the Probejahr 
is questionable on account of defects in or outside the school, the 



68 TRAINING OF TEACHERS POR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

provincial school board must require a prolongation of their semi- 
nar time for a year or half a year at another seminar. 

Candidates who, according to the unanimous judgment of the 
provincial school board, appear unfit for the teaching profession 
must be told that they cannot be admitted to the Probejahr. 

B. The Probejahr 



On the basis of the applications for admission which are ac- 
ceptable according to the regulations under § 7, the provincial 
school board assigns the candidates at the beginning of a summer 
semester or a winter semester for a continuation of training to 
one of the institutions named in § 2, 5; it is to be noted that 
not more than three candidates may at the same time be employed 
at a school with a nine years' course, and not more than two candi- 
dates at a school with a shorter time for instruction. When this 
assignment is made, the result of the Seminarjahr has to be reported 
to the directors (see § 7). 

Permission to change the institution during the Probejahr can 
be given only under exceptional conditions. 

In the case of candidates who, after the beginning of the Probe- 
jahr, go to foreign countries, either to continue their own educa- 
tion for the school service (for instance, as exchange teacher 
or with a traveling scholarship) or to teach in German schools, 
the provincial school board to whose districts the candidates be- 
longed up to that time may count the time spent there as part 
of the Probejahr if the candidates can present sufficient proof that 
they have in all respects merited such a privilege. 

§9 
According to their teaching qualification the candidates are at 
once to be intrusted with larger connected teaching problems, 
and to be given from eight to ten hours per week of actual teach- 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 69 

ing. In the case of a candidate who is employed a greater number 
of hours, compensation must be given to him according to § 12. 

This work is done under the leadership of the director of the 
institution and of those teachers in whose classes the candidates 
teach or whose lessons they have taken over. 

The entire employment of the candidates is determined by the 
director, who must see to it that opportunity is given them to in- 
struct in several subjects and in more than one grade. Candi- 
dates, whose certificate includes the natural sciences and geography, 
are for some time to be assigned to a qualified teacher in order 
to get practice in the use of means of instruction and the ordinary 
apparatus, as well as in the management and maintenance of col- 
lections. For the candidate's own benefit it is permitted and even 
advisable to intrust the teaching of German for a short time to 
those candidates who did not qualify for German. 



The director and the teachers of the institution whose lessons 
the candidate occasionally takes over should always keep in 
mind that the object of the assignment is exclusively the promotion 
of the candidate's practical education. 

Immediately after the candidate's entrance, the directors 
should accurately point out to him his duties, acquaint him with 
the regulations of the school, and in the light of the communica- 
tions of the provincial school board concerning the result of the 
Seminarjahr, help and advise him (§7). The directors must watch 
the conduct and the activity of the candidate, visit him from time 
to time in his lessons and draw his attention to accidental mistakes, 
and, if necessary, warn him seriously by indicating the conse- 
quences of disregarding this advice (§§ 15, 16). 

The teachers in charge of the training of the candidates are 
obliged to attend the candidates' lessons very often in the begin- 
ning, later, at least twice a month ; to examine the papers which 



70 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

they have corrected; and to advise them concerning matters 
outside of instruction. 

The respective teachers must report to the director their ob- 
servations concerning the work and the ambition of the candidates 
assigned to them, and must consult him concerning further re- 
quirements. 

§11 

The candidates must be present at class exercises especially 
designated by the director; they are also obliged to be present 
at examinations and teachers' conferences, according to the ar- 
rangement of the director, and to help in making out certificates 
for the pupils instructed by them. 

§ 12 

A candidate who has not yet finished his Probejahr may, in 
exceptional cases, be employed by the provincial school board as 
a scientific assistant, either as a substitute for a regular teacher 
or for an officially appointed teacher ; in case of an increased need 
of instruction, the additional work may be assigned to him rather 
than to a new teacher. 

In this case the candidate receives remuneration; he also re- 
ceives the right to vote in teachers' conferences on all questions 
which concern the class conducted by him or the pupils instructed 
by him. 

§ 13 

As evidence of the degree of pedagogical insight reached the 
candidates must, towards the end of the Probejahr, present to the 
director a report concerning their work. (Compare the remark 
about the keeping of a diary, § 5, d.) 

§ 14 
At least three weeks before the close of the Probejahr the director 
reports on its result to the provincial school board in a way similar 
to that provided in § 7, i. The work mentioned in § 13 and a 
short criticism of it must be presented with this report. 



CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 7 1 

§15 

The provincial school board soon states, on the basis of the 
reports of the directors concerning the Seminarjahr and the 
Probejahr and on the basis of the observations of the district ad- 
visers, its opinion of the candidate's work and the result of the 
entire two years' practical training, and decides whether the 
candidate can fill an appointment or not. 

If it is doubtful whether a candidate is worthy of appointment, 
the provincial school board must order a prolongation of the 
Probejahr at first for half a year and must defer recognition of his 
teaching abihty. A certificate concerning the teaching abUity 
of a candidate can by no means be given if in the meantime it has 
been proved that the candidate, either through physical defects 
or through unavoidable pedagogical defects, is unable to fulfill his 
duties as a teacher or educator of youth, or if the candidate on 
account of his conduct within or without the school appears unfit 
for the teaching profession. This decision must be commiitdcated 
in writing to the candidate with the reasons for it. 

§i6 

The certification must take place so early that the oath of 
the candidates, as far as they desire to enter the higher pubhc 
school service, can be taken before the first of April or the first of 
October. A certificate concerning his practical training must 
be deUvered to the candidate who has been considered capable 
of teaching. 

§ 17 

Special regulations apply to the reports concerning the com- 
pleted practical education of the candidates, which are to be 
made at Easter or in the autumn by the provincial school board. 

§18 
The minister reserves to himself the right of exemption from 
the two years' practical education in individual cases; for instance, 
in the appointment of clergymen to the higher school service. 



72 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Lines of Development. — An examination of the con- 
ditions for the certification of teachers in the higher 
schools from 1810 to the present time shows certain 
changes which may be summarized as follows : — 

1 . Additional subjects have been introduced from time 
to time, — philosophy, history, theology, pedagogy, 
geography, physics, botany, zoology, English, chemistry, 
mineralogy, and applied mathematics. 

2. Increase in the number of subjects upon which the 
candidate may pass examination is accompanied by a 
decrease in the number upon which he must be examined. 
At first all the subjects were included in the examina- 
tion; after 1866 oral examination was required in part 
of the subjects, and both oral and written examinations 
were required in all the subjects which the candidate 
desired to teach ; since 1887 an oral examination has been 
required in philosophy, pedagogy, the German language 
and literature, and religion, and both oral and written 
examinatioii in the subjects which the candidate desires 
to teach. 

3. There has been a change in the grouping of the sub- 
jects in which the candidate may secure the teaching 
certificate. In 183 1 there were three groups; in 1866 four 
groups were established; and since 1898 there have been 
six required combinations of subjects. 

4. The written work has increased in severity and defi- 
niteness. Instead of covering all subjects, as at first, it is 



CERTiriCATION OF TEACHERS 73 

now limited to two theses to be prepared within a period 
of sixteen weeks, and a three-hour examination in one 
of the principal subjects. One of the theses is in the 
sphere of the four subjects included in the general exami- 
nation, the other in one of the principal subjects. 

5. The special examination for a particular position has 
disappeared. 

6. The division into lower, middle, and upper classes as 
a basis for grading certificates has been displaced by the 
division into the six lower and the three upper classes. 

7. At first two grades of certificates were issued, then 
three, then two, and now but one. Within this one grade, 
however, certain qualitative differences are recognized. 

8. The number of times that an examination may be 
attempted has become more and more limited, and now 
only a second trial is permitted. 

9. For many years no written examination was re- 
quired of men who had taken a university degree. 
At present the only special favor granted them is that 
they may submit the doctor's dissertation in place of one 
of the theses, provided it covers the proper field. 

10. Before 1898 an applicant who showed evidence of 
incompetence might be advised by the commission not to 
attempt the examination, but the privilege could not be 
denied him ; since that date the president of the examin- 
ing commission is required to deny him admittance. 

1 1 . The test lesson, required at first, fell into disuse, 



74 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

but the need of practical training was greatly emphasized 
by the introduction of the Seminarjahr in 1890. 

12. The influence of the schoolmen both in the train- 
ing of candidates and in their examination has increased, 
as is indicated by their prominent position on the examin- 
ing commission, and by the provisions for the manage- 
ment of the gymnasial seminars. 

13. All the changes show a tendency to make the con- 
ditions for certification more severe, more explicit, more 
pedagogical in their nature, and, on the whole, more con- 
ducive to the thorough professional training of candidates. 
To an ever increasing degree, they emphasize the pro- 
fessional nature of the calling. 



CHAPTER III 

Institutions for the Training of Teachers 

In the previous chapter the development of the legal 
qualifications for the teacher's office during the last 
century has been briefly traced, and the present require- 
ments have been given in detail. The next step is natu- 
rally a consideration of the institutions in which teachers 
receive their training. These, too, have a history, and it 
is worth while to see how they came to be what they now 
are. Besides the university as a whole, there are two 
kinds of special institutions, the university seminar and 
the gymnasial seminar. No attempt will be made to give 
a complete history of these seminars, but only to present 
that which is t3Apical in the development of each, together 
with a concrete and somewhat detailed account of what 
is now done in them. 

THE university 

A . The University as a Whole has always played the 
most important part in the training of teachers for Ger- 
man higher schools. Before the state assumed responsi- 
bility for the training of its citizens, education was in 
the hands of the church and private individuals. The 

75 



76 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

priesthood and the ministry were always trained at the 
universities, and the priests and ministers controlled 
education either through the church or through private 
efforts. Churchmen were teachers before they became 
churchmen, and often afterwards also. A degree from 
a university was, throughout the eighteenth century, 
an easy passport to the teacher's position. For some 
years after the state began to exercise control over the 
schools, a university degree was so highly esteemed that 
its possessor was excused from a written examination. 
During most of the nineteenth century three years' 
attendance upon a university was an absolute necessity 
for all who would become teachers in the higher schools. 
It is a significant fact that the university as a whole has 
exercised more influence upon the training of teachers for 
these schools than have all other institutions organized 
for special pedagogical purposes, either within it or out- 
side of it. 

B. The Theological-philological-pedagogical Seminar. 
— Within the university the first institution organized 
for the particular purpose of training teachers for the 
higher schools was what may be called the theological- 
philological-pedagogical seminar. As the name implies, 
it was inspired by two or three interests which usually 
worked in harmony, although sometimes one interest and 
sometimes another dominated. In a few cases, notably 
that of the seminar connected with the university at 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS 77 

Halle under the leadership of Wolf, one interest was not 
only dominant, but it was actually antagonistic to the 
others. 

From a retrospective point of view it seems wholly 
natural that the first interest in the special training of 
teachers should appear among theologians and philolo- 
gians. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the 
former were leaders of the people intellectually as well as 
spiritually, and doubtless they realized much more clearly 
than any one else the problems of instruction and training 
and the importance of preparation for the work of teach- 
ing, whether in the church or in the school. Their task 
was the development of character through an appeal to 
feeling and impulse as well as to intellect. The philolo- 
gians, on the other hand, were the most scholarly people 
of the time and had the clearest appreciation of the prob- 
lems of scholarship. Their interests were mainly intel- 
lectual, and they stood for the best in intellectual effort 
and attainment in the schools. Not infrequently the 
interests of both theologian and philologian were com- 
bined in one person. The churchman had to be a 
student of the languages, and, in most cases, the linguist 
had ofl&cial connection with the church. At all events 
philology and theology combined to form the first insti- 
tution within the university in which the training of 
teachers for their work was recognized as an important 
object. 



78 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Gdttingen. — The first seminar of this kind was founded 
at Gottingen in 1737. Concerning it, Fries writes as 
follows : — 

"The oldest example of a university seminar is the institution 
founded by J. M. Gesner. As a student at Jena he had received 
the first suggestion of it from his teacher, Buddeus, who desired 
to equip the students of theology with pedagogical knowledge 
for their future calling as teachers and wished to found a peda- 
gogical seminar for this purpose. As a guide for it, Gesner wrote, 
in 1 71 5, his ' Institutiones rei Scholasticas,' a kind of compendium 
which was based, not upon his own experience, but upon a study 
of Ratke, Comenius, and Locke. The work showed his own good 
judgment, however, and served as an outline of his intended lec- 
tures. In it he treated didactics especially, but he also gave rules 
for education. His later views, ripened through long experience, 
can be found in the prefaces of different books, especially in the 
'Primae linese isagoges in eruditionem universalem.' 

"The plan was not carried out at Jena, but after Gesner had 
gathered rich experience in Weimar, Ansbach, and Leipsic, the 
opportunity was finally given in Gottingen for the realization of 
his ideas. As inspector of the Gymnasien in the Braunschweig- 
Liineburg districts, he remained in particularly close touch with 
the practice of the schools. Opportunity was also given in the 
philological seminar in Gottingen to train theologians for the 
work of teaching. Three kinds of instruction were undertaken: 
first, scientific, in philology, mathematics, natural science, history, 
and geography; second, pedagogical, in which the institutiones 
previously mentioned was used as a foundation ; third, practical, 
by means of practice teaching in the city school. Under Gesner 
and also under his successor, Heyne, this seminar trained a great 
number of capable schoolmen for the country. Fr. A. Wolf visited 
it several times, but had no ofiicial connection with it. Charac- 
teristic of the institution was the union of instruction in subject 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 79 

matter with pedagogical instruction. This union was certainly 
influenced by the university customs of the time, since the sub- 
jects which belonged properly to the schools received insufficient 
consideration in the lectures. It was typical, however, of this 
whole class of seminars." ^ 

Halle. — The seminar at Halle had a checkered history 
and presents several interesting phases of development. 
In 1765 J. S. Semler, one of the Halle rationalists, sought 
to give the members of his theological seminar some 
preparation for the work of teaching. The instruction 
consisted mainly in philological lectures and exercises in 
the classics. The Minister of State, von Zedlitz, became 
interested in the idea and in 1777 provided for the estab- 
lishment of a special pedagogical division of the theological 
seminar, in which teachers for the Volksschule might be 
trained and to which a practice school should be attached. 
The whole institution was under Semler's supervision, 
but the work was done by Schutz who gave pedagogical 
lectures besides managing the institution directly. When 
the latter was called to Jena two years later, the Minister 
sought a successor who was in sympathy with the Philan- 
thropinistic movement ; but Trapp, the man chosen, was 
not successful either in his lectures or in the management 
of the practice school, and soon left the position. For- 
tunately, the interest of Minister von Zedlitz continued, 
and Fr. A. Wolf was placed at the head of the work with 
the title of professor of philology and pedagogy. As 
^ Fries, W., Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, 22. 



8o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

professor of pedagogy he was placed under obligations to 
act as leader of the practice school, to give instruction in 
it, and to give pedagogical lectures. He had little faith, 
however, in the distinctly pedagogical side of the work, and 
he not only permitted the practice school to die, but caused 
a professorship in oratory to be substituted for the one 
in pedagogy. In 1787 he established a philological 
seminar in place of the pedagogical seminar, and then, 
with rare zeal and ability, he devoted himself to the train- 
ing of philologists, many of whom caught his spirit and 
later became excellent teachers. Wolf's contention was 
that the work of the schools could never be highly success- 
ful so long as it was conducted by men whose main interest 
lay in theology and the church. In the new emphasis 
which he placed upon thorough knowledge of subject 
matter and the choice of teaching as a life work, he per- 
formed a great service. It is interesting to note that in 
later years he had a higher appreciation of both the need 
and the value of pedagogical training. 

In 1804 the theological seminar was again divided into a 
theological and a pedagogical section. The latter was 
to prepare teachers for the Gymnasium and for the middle 
and lower Burger schulen. In 1829 this was, by ministe- 
rial order, made into an independent institution ; but it 
was provided that the director must be both a professor 
in the university theological or philosophical faculty and 
also a practical schoolman. The director, Niemeyer, 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 8 1 

wished to join it with the Franckesche Stiftungen whose 
schools afforded abundant opportunity for observation 
and practice, but the university authorities did not ap- 
prove the plan. The institution soon lost its independ- 
ence, and in 1835 it was made permanently a part of the 
theological seminar. In 1853 it came under the manage- 
ment of the professor of theology, Kramer, who was also 
Director of the Franckesche Stiftungen. Lectures were 
now given on pedagogy, didactics, and the history of 
education and of systems of instruction. To this 
theoretical instruction were added practical exercises 
of three kinds : first, members of the seminar were re- 
quired to instruct pupils called from the schools for the 
purpose, the teaching being observed and afterwards 
criticized by their colleagues and the director; second, 
they were required to visit the classes of superior teachers 
in the schools ; third, they were sometimes required 
to give independent instruction in the schools. This 
management continued successfully until 1881, when 
the directorship was placed in the hands of a new pro- 
fessor of theology. Dr. Herbst. In 1882 the ministerial 
order that candidates must have passed their state exami- 
nation before entering upon their practice year, antago- 
nized the prosperity of the seminar ; and, upon the death 
of Herbst, in 1884, it was removed from the university to 
Magdeburg and placed under the control of the provincial 
school board. 



82 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The seminars just described may be taken as typical 
of the spirit and attainments of all the institutions of this 
class. Other seminars — linguistic, historical, mathe- 
matical, and scientific — were organized in connection 
with the universities, the main purpose of which was the 
development of academic scholarship without particular 
reference to pedagogical questions, and these seminars 
have become a well-established feature of university life 
everywhere. 

C. The Pedagogical Seminar. — In the theological-phil- 
ological-pedagogical seminar the main interest lay in the 
mastery of subject matter, and more emphasis was placed 
upon this than upon distinctively pedagogical questions. 
A little later the interest in purely pedagogical ques- 
tions became greater, and seminars were established 
in which pedagogical problems occupied the attention 
of those concerned, a satisfactory knowledge of subject 
matter being regarded as a necessary presupposition. 

Konigsberg. — The efforts of Herbart at Konigsberg 
are of special interest because of the Herbartian influence 
upon later generations. Herbart's personality was of 
that winning type which enabled him to secure what he 
wanted for carrying out his project. In 1810 the Prussian 
authorities gave him money and authority for the estab- 
lishment of his pedagogical seminar. In the sketch of 
his plans which he presented to William von Humboldt, 
Herbart proposed to center the interest of many teachers 



INSTITUTIONS FOB. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 83 

and students upon a small number of pupils cared for in 
a home over which he should have entire control. The 
number of pupils was limited to twenty, and it never 
actually exceeded fifteen. They ranged in age from nine 
to sixteen. There were to be four classes, the highest 
preparing for Secunda or Prima in the Gymnasium. 
Herbart himself, as director, was to be assisted by one 
supervisor, who had taken his doctor's degree, and by one 
teacher, who might be a university student. The super- 
visor should live with the boys in the home and be at all 
times responsible for them. The teacher should care for 
them especially during holiday periods and at other times 
in the absence of the supervisor. The supervisor should 
make a yearly report upon his observations and experi- 
ments. In the management of the school there should be 
no attempt to follow the lines laid down for other schools, 
as one main purpose was the development of pedagogical 
science through experiment. The philosophical and 
pedagogical lectures and the practical work were to 
stand in the closest possible relation. Members of the 
seminar should hear the lectures, be responsible for the 
pupils at specified times, teach classes under direction 
and criticism, visit one another's classes, and make reports 
upon observations or assigned topics. A meeting of the 
seminar should be held once a week for the reading and 
discussion of reports. As actually carried out, the organi- 
zation was somewhat different. At first, students served 



84 TRAINING OF TEACHERS EOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

under Herbart's direction in place of the supervisor. The 
home for the boys was provided only when he took 
them into his own house. Two regular teachers were at 
length secured who worked under his supervision. The 
school stood entirely apart from other schools, and the 
arrangement of the work was different. Notwithstand- 
ing the rather unfavorable conditions under which the 
work was carried on, the results both in the practice school 
and in the seminar were unusually satisfactory. The 
succcess of the institution seems to have been largely de- 
pendent upon Herbart's personality, however, for, at his 
departure from Konigsberg in 1833, it entirely collapsed. 
Relatively few of the students trained here under Herbart 
became teachers in the higher schools, but he had been an 
inspiration to some who carried on the work elsewhere in 
the universities. 

Jena. — The university pedagogical seminar idea has 
been most consistently worked out at Jena. Brzoska, who 
had been an enthusiastic student and assistant of Her- 
bart at Konigsberg, gave psychological and pedagogical 
lectures here from 1832 to 1839, and he also announced 
practical pedagogical exercises. The latter, however, 
seem to have found no considerable place. His successor 
Graefe, director of the Burger schule, tried the same, but 
with no great success. In 1843 Professor Stoy founded a 
pedagogical society and laid a firm foundation for the 
later substantial development of pedagogical work in the 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 85 

university. His own lectures on general and special peda- 
gogy constituted the basis of all his work. From the be- 
ginning Stoy emphasized the necessity of practical as 
well as theoretical pedagogical training for theologians, 
and his efforts were directed towards providing for their 
needs. In the later years of his life, he estimated that 
about one third of the members of his seminar were theo- 
logians. He wished to provide a stipendium for them, so 
that they could study with him a half year after they had 
passed their examination, but the plan failed. Towards 
the close of his career fewer theologians attended his 
seminar, but, to his great satisfaction, their places were 
taken by candidates for the position of teacher in the 
higher schools who had passed the state examination 
{Staatsexamen) or taken the Doctor's degree. Many 
elementary school teachers also attended his seminar. 
In 1857 Stoy established a regular order of procedure 
with reference to the meetings of his seminar. These 
meetings consisted of the practicum, a trial lesson given by 
a candidate before all the members of the seminar ; the 
criticum, in which the work of the practicum was discussed 
and criticized by the candidate himself, by a special critic 
appointed for the purpose, and by the members generally ; 
the scholasticum, in which the general opportunities and 
needs of the practice school were discussed ; and the peda- 
gogicum, in which pedagogical questions of all kinds were 
considered. One meeting of each was held every week. 



86 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Stoy early established a school for observation and prac- 
tice, and this was always the most characteristic and 
interesting feature of his work. At first it consisted of a 
few boys from the Burgerschule who came voluntarily, 
but the second year he took over the management of a 
boys' home, and this gave him a number of classes for the 
use of his seminar. Three Volksschule classes, each con- 
taining about ten boys, were assigned to the use of the 
school ; then the city school authorities placed two classes 
of girls at his disposal, and, finally, a city boys' school 
was placed under his control. The candidates entered 
heartily into the work of practice teaching, and the 
seminar prospered. Stoy himself taught in the school 
under the observation of his candidates; he superin- 
tended practice teaching, and he gave lectures on psy- 
chology and pedagogy, which applied directly to the 
work in hand. He was untiring in his efforts and was 
himself the life of the seminar. Organized efforts were 
made to promote school celebrations, gymnastics, church 
attendance, Christmas enjoyment, school journeys, and 
field work with a harvest celebration; and contributions 
were secured for these purposes. 

The very prosperity of the undertaking proved its 
undoing. On the ground of its previous success, Stoy, 
in 1863, asked for a larger and surer financial equipment 
and for students' time to the amount of twelve weekly 
hours of instruction. He proposed to admit to the semi- 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 87 

nar, first, those who were candidates in theology or for 
the position of teacher in the higher schools ; and, second, 
students of theology or philosophy who had spent three 
semesters in study. Members of the first class were to 
take part faithfully in all assigned tasks, to observe the 
rules of the school to the best of their ability, and to 
prepare and present each semester a report or discussion 
upon some topic in philosophical or historical pedagogy. 
Members of the second class were regarded as associates 
and, at their option, were freed from part or all of the 
practical exercises. These propositions, especially that 
concerning the time to be required of the students, met 
with opposition on the part of the theological faculty. 
The decision made by the authorities in 1865 provided 
that students should not be obliged to spend more than 
four hours per week in the seminar and should not be 
permitted to enter it until the fifth semester. .As Stoy 
could not endure this limitation, he resigned his position 
and moved to Heidelberg, where he remained until his 
recall to Jena in 1874. It is of interest to note in passing 
that his efforts to organize a seminar in Heidelberg 
were unsuccessful. During his absence from Jena the 
practice school was returned to the management of the 
city authorities. In 1876 it was again turned over to him, 
and the work in it continued, until his death in 1885, in 
much the same manner as in the earlier years. In the 
school there were a principal teacher and three class 



88 TRAINING or TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

teachers who were assisted by the candidates. The 
number of seminar members reached forty. Stoy lec- 
tured on psychology, philosophical pedagogy, gymnasial 
pedagogy, encyclopedia, methodology and literature of 
pedagogy, Herbart's life and system, logic, and intro- 
duction to philosophy. Notwithstanding his great age, 
he worked indef atigably for the success of the enterprise, 
and it prospered. 

Stoy's able successor. Professor William Rein, has con- 
tinued, with only slight changes, the work begun by the 
former. Instead of a training school in which all classes 
are represented, there are now but three classes from the 
Volksschule, some seventy-five pupils in all. For this 
school, which is housed in a plain but good building, 
there are a principal and three class teachers. They are 
assisted by candidates. Stoy's four weekly meetings of 
the seminar have been reduced to three, and the changes 
made have had the general effect of lightening the work 
required of students. 

The meetings of the seminar for one week, as observed 
by the writer, were as follows : The practicum was held 
at seven o'clock on Tuesday morning in the large room 
of the school building. Those present consisted of the di- 
rector, the principal of the school, the candidate in charge 
of the class, a class of seventeen boys about eleven years 
old, and fifty observers, a few of whom were visitors. 
The candidate, a young man who was studying for the 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TEAINING OF TEACHERS 89 

degree of doctor of philosophy, had entire charge of the 
class and did good work. The subject was geography, and 
the particular topic, the Netherlands. By means of a 
series of statements and questions, the teacher developed 
a number of facts concerning these countries, constant 
reference being made to the wall map and to the pupils' 
atlases. Before the close of the hour the pupils were 
required to restate these facts systematically. The plan 
of the lesson showed intelligent regard for pedagogical 
principles, even though there may have been wanting the 
skill in applying them that comes with experience. The 
written outline of the plan prepared by the teacher was 
passed around to the members of the seminar. 

The second meeting of the week, the theoreticum, was 
held on Wednesdaj^ from eleven to one in the university 
auditorium. The topic discussed was the observations 
made by the members of the seminar during a recent 
visit to schools situated some miles from Jena. The 
director suggested that the discussion should be directed 
to three points: adverse criticism, statement of what 
pleased, and suggestion of what could be used advanta- 
geously in the seminar practice school. Only the first two 
points were considered, the topic being continued for 
further discussion at the next meeting. In the discussion, 
which was general, there was appreciation of good points 
in the teaching observed, as well as unsparing, penetrat- 
ing, adverse criticism. A member of the seminar was 



go TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

appointed to send to the directors of the schools visited a 
statement of the points mentioned in adverse and favor- 
able criticism. 

The third meeting, the conference, was held on Thurs- 
day evening from half-past eight to half-past ten, in a 
room of the historic Burgkeller. It was semi-social in 
character, at least an opportunity was offered for social 
intercourse before and after the session, as those present 
sat around tables and partook of refreshments. This was 
the largest meeting of the week. Eighty names were 
called, and some seventy-five persons were present. The 
membership includes men and women, part of whom are 
young, others somewhat mature. Among the latter 
was a considerable number of school officials who were 
seeking better training for their work. At the opening 
of the session two former members of the seminar, 
who now hold important positions, were introduced. 
After the reading of exhaustive minutes of the preceding 
meeting and the announcement of the program for the 
next meeting, the seminar proceeded to the criticism 
of two practice lessons, one of which has been described. 
The order of procedure was self-criticism by the candidate, 
criticism (read) by the referent appointed for the purpose, 
reply by the candidate, general criticism by the members 
of the seminar (which on this particular occasion was not 
spirited) , pertinent remarks by the principal of the prac- 
tice school, and closing discussion by the director. To 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS QI 

an American observer it was a noticeable and not alto- 
gether agreeable fact that, of the twenty or more women 
present, none contributed anything to the discussion. 

In addition to his duties as director of the seminar, 
Professor Rein gives lectures on general and special peda- 
gogy, psychology, foreign school systems, and ethics. 
Jena offers excellent opportunities for the study of general 
pedagogy and the general principles underlying practical 
teaching. The work is not highly specialized, indeed the 
director believes that as much attention should be given 
to the training of lower school teachers and school offi- 
cials as to the training of teachers for the higher schools. 
Under a law peculiar to Saxe-Weimar, the state to which 
the University of Jena belongs, candidates for the higher 
school office who have passed their state examination, 
are required to attend the university lectures on pedagogy 
and to teach at least two hours per week in the university 
practice school at the same time that they do the work of 
the Seminarjahr and Probejahr in the city Gymnasium 
under the direction of the man who is at once rector of the 
Gymnasium and director of the gymnasial seminar. The 
higher-school practice teaching is done in the Gymnasium, 
and it is here that they receive the most direct practical 
training for their work. 

The following rules formulated for the government of 
the university seminar are of interest as indicating in 
detail the spirit and method of its work. 



92 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

REGULATIONS FOR THE PEDAGOGICAL SEMINAR OF 

THE UNIVERSITY AND ITS PRACTICE SCHOOL AT 

JENA 

I. General Regulations for the Seminar at Large 
I. members and their duties 

(a) Membership 
§ I. Any student or auditor at the University may become 
a member of the seminar by applying personally to the director. 
Admission may be had at any time. Regular members are to 
register their names and an autobiographical sketch in the semi- 
nar book. 

(b) Classes of Members 

§ 2. Besides the teachers of the practice school, there are 
regular members and associate members. Regular members are 
those who give instruction in the practice school. AU members 
are obliged to attend the weekly conferences of the seminar. 

(c) Teachers 

§ 3. The principal and the two class teachers direct the school 
work under supervision of the director. The practice school has 
three classes and three teachers. 

§ 4. The teachers instruct the candidates in preparing their 
lessons, receive the lesson plans, and present the latter from time 
to time to the director. They watch over the lessons of the candi- 
dates and are allowed to interfere in these lessons. Conversation 
with the candidates during the lesson is not permitted ; only short 
directions and hints are allowed. Teachers should arrange critical 
discussions with the candidates, if possible, immediately after the 
lessons. Under certain circumstances the lessons may be entirely 
left to the candidates. From time to time every teacher should 
have conferences with his candidates, especially concerning the 
making out of concentration diagrams for the coming week and 
concerning uniform measures of government and discipline. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 93 

(d) Candidates 

§ 5, Before taking a class the candidate must first have an 
understanding with the regular teacher and the class teacher con- 
cerned. The new candidates may begin to instruct only after 
having observed many lessons, especially those of the subject 
which they have chosen. 

§ 6. A class is taken for a whole semester. Every lesson 
must be based on a lesson plan which must have the form of me- 
thodical unity as far as the subject matter permits it. The subject 
matter must be accurately and distinctly organized, and the single 
parts must be emphasized by marking them on the margin. 
Questions concerning concentration and the results to be aimed at 
should be stated accurately. In details the instruction may be 
conducted freely. As the instruction in the practice school is 
based on concentration, every candidate must try to make himself 
familiar with the lines of concentration of other subjects. For 
some time he should also attend lessons which are closely re- 
lated to those subjects which he teaches. Moreover, he should 
acquaint himself with the illustrative means of instruction which 
the school museum possesses, particularly with photographs. 

§ 7. The lesson plans must always be delivered to the class 
teachers in whose class the lesson is to take place. The criticisms 
of the class teacher and of the director must receive due consid- 
eration. The candidate must also adjust himself to those means 
of discipline which are used in the practice school. 

(e) Members in General 

§ 9. The professional spirit should be such as to lead mem- 
bers of the seminar to attend the school celebrations. May festi- 
vals, and excursions of the practice school. 

§ 10. A special book has been provided for reports of the cele- 
brations of the seminar (birthdays of the Emperor and the Grand 



94 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Duke, celebration of Christmas, etc.). A member is responsible 
for these reports. 

§ II. The observation of lessons and the exchange of opinion 
concerning them and concerning reports in the observation book 
are opportunities for cultivating and maintaining a competitive 
professional spirit. Mutual general observations are especially 
recommended. The associate members should also often take 
the opportunity to observe and to use the observation book. 
The person criticized in the observation book may write a reply, 
to which may be added the remarks of the class teacher con- 
cerned. No controversy may be continued after the following 
meeting. 

§ 12. In connection with the celebration of Christmas for the 
pupils of the practice school there exists also a celebration of 
Christmas for the members of the seminar in remembrance of the 
day of the founding of the seminar (December 9, 1843). This 
celebration should give former members of the seminar oppor- 
tunity to show their attachment to the institution. 

§ 13. From time to time the seminar publishes books. Com- 
munications, especially concerning the literary activity of former 
members of the seminar, are very much wanted for publication 
in these books. Up to the present time thirteen books have come 
out; they can be purchased in the seminar, from the regularly 
appointed teacher, for one mark, a mark and a half, two marks, 
and three marks. 

(/) Withdrawal from the Seminar 

§ 14. Withdrawal from the seminar as well as admission to it 
is permitted only on personal application to the director. Mem- 
bers who leave Jena are expected to keep up their connection with 
the seminar, especially to furnish communications for the seminar 
book. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 95 
2. WEEKLY CONFERENCES OF THE SEMINAR 

(a) Theoretiaim 
§ 15. In the theoreticum, which is held in one of the lecture- 
rooms of the university, ethical and psychological problems, 
special scientific educational problems, and questions of method 
are discussed. The discussion is led by the director. Any mem- 
ber of the seminar may take part in the discussion, 

(&) Practicum 

§ 16. The practicum consists of a trial lesson, in the presence of 
the director and aU members of the seminar, which is assigned 
to candidates and sometimes also to class teachers. There is at 
least one practicum weekly. 

§ 17. The practicum is not to be confounded with an examina- 
tion ; on the contrary, it should give an illustration of the teach- 
ing of the candidate and must therefore be fitted into the entire 
course of instruction. The lesson plan which forms the basis for 
the lesson should be open to inspection by all members of the 
seminar during the practicum. In this lesson plan the place where 
the lesson begins is to be marked accurately. 

§ 18. The regular teacher assigns every practicum to a chief 
critic who has to prepare a written criticism to be delivered to 
the class teacher a day or two before the meeting, if possible, and 
afterwards to the director. This criticism will then be read and 
discussed in the meeting. A special form exists for this criticism. 

§ 19. The criticism is preceded by a self-criticism in which the 
candidate must clearly explain his own opinion of the mistakes 
which he made in the trial lesson, without having consulted the 
critic or the class teacher concerned. 

§ 20. The regular teacher assigns the writing of minutes to 
another candidate who must make a list of the questions asked 
during the practicum. This statement must cover the following 
topics : — 



96 TRAINING or TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

(o) Were the questions formulated in the right way ? 

(b) Were they distributed equally or were some pupils ques- 
tioned too often, others overlooked? 

(c) Were the necessary summaries given according to the para- 
graphs of the lesson plan ? Was there sufficient repetition ? The 
notes of the candidate who takes the minutes must be used in 
the criticism. Criticism and self-criticism must be registered in 
special books. 

(c) The Conference 

§ 21. The conference takes place once a week under the leader- 
ship of the director or, in exceptional cases, of the regular teacher. 
The material for discussion is furnished by school affairs in general, 
and particularly by the weekly practicum. 

The meeting is conducted according to the following program : — 

1. Appointment of another candidate to take minutes. 

2. Old minutes. 

3. Attendance list. 

4. Supervision of recess periods. 

5. New practicum. 

6. Observation book. 

7. General affairs. 

8. Discussion of the practicum. 

(a) Reading of the criticisms. 

(b) Discussion. 

The regular teacher announces the order of the discussion. At 
the close of the meeting the usual contributions which cover the 
expenses of school journeys are collected and put into the treasury. 
The candidate appointed to take the minutes must do this and 
deliver the sum collected to the regular teacher for the traveUng 
fund. 

In addition to this main conference the principal teacher holds 
meetings in which disturbances in the school organization, absences, 
punishments, personal records, the aims of the week (concentra- 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 97 

tion curricula) are discussed. The candidates must take part 
in these meetings. 

§ 22. The minutes are taken by the members in alphabetical 
order. The particulars of the discussion should not be reproduced. 
The disputed points, reasons for and against, and the results 
should be summed up clearly. 

§ 23. The chief part of the meeting is devoted to the discussion 
of the practicum. The latter begins with the reading of the criti- 
cism of the candidate upon his own work. This criticism should 
most emphatically lead the candidates to seek first in themselves 
for the mistakes which have been made and to avoid the use of 
unnecessary severity to excuse mistakes or to put the blame for 
them upon the pupils or some one else. The self-criticism is fol- 
lowed by that of the appointed critic. In connection with the 
dififerent parts of the latter, the discussion occurs. The mem- 
bers of the seminar are required to. prepare themselves thoroughly 
for this discussion. 

Naturally a purely objective discussion of the points in question 
is reqxiired. Personal attacks and references should be avoided. 

II. Regulations of the Practice School 
I. instruction concerning government 
Introduction 
Government includes aU arrangements which the school needs 
to create and maintain order as the first requirement for every 
kind of teaching or educating influence. Its purpose is to form 
the habits necessary to school Kfe. It therefore demands par- 
ticularly from the teachers a firm and punctual adherence to the 
rules, which naturally must be the same for all. 

I. Before Schooltime 

§ I. Schooltime begins in the summer semester at 7 o'clock, 
in winter at 8 o'clock (for the lower classes at 8 or 9 o'clock). 

H 



98 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Lessons begin fifteen minutes after the hour. The school clock 
gives the official time. 

§ 2. It is the duty of pupils intrusted with offices to take 
care that the means of instruction which are to be used, such as 
textbooks, apparatus for nature study, maps and rulers, slates, 
pencils, and so on, are in the classroom in due time and in good 
condition. Whenever necessary, the teachers must give instruc- 
tion to those pupils who have charge of these duties. During 
the lessons pupils should not be sent after apparatus or mate- 
rials of instruction. 

§ 3. As long as no standing rule has been laid down, the 
teacher must, at the beginning of every lesson, ask the pupils in 
charge to answer the question : Is everything in order ? At this 
time also pupils should themselves announce absences. The chil- 
dren are to be trained so that after the command to sit down has 
been given, those who have absences to announce remain standing. 
These announcements are to be given quickly. If longer discus- 
sions or punishments are required, the announcements are to be 
repeated at the close of the lesson. 

§ 4. As the instruction given can only be successful if the best 
order is maintained throughout the lesson, the teacher must, after 
the children have resumed their seats, pay attention to the follow- 
ing points : the children should sit quietly but naturally ; their 
eyes should be fixed on the teacher ; their hands should lie quietly 
on the benches; their legs should be kept quiet. Instruction 
may not begin until everything is in order. 

2. During and after Schooltime 

§ 5. As far as possible pupils are to be trained to make an 
independent statement concerning the home work and the aim 
of the lesson. 

§ 6. During schooltime the same order with which the lesson 
was begun must always be maintained. Instruction may neither be 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 99 

begun nor continued unless the pupils are orderly and keep their 
eyes fixed on the teacher ; but the necessary order should always 
first be estabUshed through looks, hints, tapping on the table, or 
through such orders as "Eyes ! " "Look here ! " "Look at me ! " 
Special attention must be given to this if the pupils, on account 
of the nature of the instruction given, need to look for some time 
at illustrative material or at written work. 

§ 7. During instruction the teacher should so far as possible 
take a position on a step from which he can overlook all the chil- 
dren. He should not keep his eyes exclusively on the pupil who 
is questioned, or on the pupil who is talking. He may not without 
necessity turn his back on the class or individual pupils. He may 
not leave his place xmless a pupil needs special aid. It is not al- 
lowed to touch pupils or to push them into their seats. Only in 
exceptional cases is the teacher allowed to sit ; lounging is contrary 
to the good order which the teacher must preserve at all times. 

§ 8. All questions and explanations of the teacher must be 
directed to the whole class. The children who wish to answer 
the questions indicate it by lifting the right hand. Only then 
must a single child be designated to answer the question. Every 
pupil who wishes instruction is required to lift his hand and wait 
patiently until the teacher asks what is wanted. Restlessness 
and answering without being asked are not permitted because 
they disturb instruction. 

§ 9. If the teacher has called the name of a child, the latter 
rises quickly, stands straight without hanging his head or without 
leaning on the bench. When he answers, he speaks frankly and 
loudly. Low speaking, generally a consequence of slyness, must 
be overcome if possible through frequent speaking in concert. 
In the use of such an exercise the teacher should always observe 
whether the desired result is attained. To stoop to a low-speaking 
pupil means to encourage him in his bad habit. 

§ 10. AU orders of the teacher which concern the class at large, 
such as taking and putting away textbooks, copy books, and 



TOO TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

writing utensils, the orderly distribution and collection of copy 
books, drawing books, textbooks, and other means of instruction, 
and the formation of lines when leaving the class, must be executed 
to firm, single commands, counting the moments of the action until 
the habit is firmly established. When such habits are formed, 
they must be continually controlled. Such brief commands are : 
"Books out," "Write," "Pens away," "Open your books," "Close 
books," "Distribute copy books and books," " Collect copy books," 
"Stand up," "Ready," "Form in line," "Go." 

§ II. Pupils shoidd be taught the proper use of their books. 
The following rules should be especially observed : — 

1. All textbooks and copy books must have covers and blot- 
ters. 

2. When words and lines are to be shown in reading, or places 
on maps or globes, a pencil or small stick should be used ; pupils 
should not be allowed to point with their fingers. 

3. Blackboards and slates should not be wiped with the hands, 
and they should not be used as long as they are wet. 

4. Pencils and pens are only to be handled in writing; they 
are to be put aside as soon as the work is done. 

§ 12. When the director or visitors enter or leave the room, 
the children should rise and sit down again upon a signal from the 
teacher. 

The candidates who observe should refrain from stating opinions 
during instruction. No one but the director or class teacher is 
allowed to interfere in the instruction or the government even if 
the teacher makes evident mistakes. 

§ 13. The continual observance of all important hygienic fac- 
tors, such as protection against glaring sunlight, temperature, 
and so on, is necessary. Only in exceptional cases are pupils 
permitted to leave the room. 

§ 14. The signal at the close of the hour must be given by the 
teacher. It is not permitted to prolong the lesson after the striking 
of the clock or to assign home work, or to make up for time lost 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS lOI 

at the beginning of the lesson. In exceptional cases, such matters 
may be settled by appointment with the children at the close of 
the forenoon or afternoon period. The children leave the room 
quietly in pairs. 

§ 15. Especially at the close of the school day should atten- 
tion be given to the order. Restlessness or premature packing 
of school materials should be punished instantly by sharply re- 
buking the children or by not allowing them to leave the school- 
room with the other children. 

§ 16. I. End and purpose of personal help given. — Personal help 
given to backward pupils should not have the character of a pun- 
ishment. On the other hand, keeping pupils in after school is a 
punishment which may also be given to pupils in connection with 
their written and oral work if this work is continually neglected, 
especially if corrections, etc., are badly done and if the pupils are 
always lazy. Individual help given should, in the true sense of 
the word, help the pupil to reach the aims of the class and should 
try continually to raise him to the level of the class. 

2. Participation in these lessons is determined by the marks 
on the written home work and by insufficient knowledge shown in 
oral work. In the first case, it is left to the teacher concerned to 
state what mark he considers the limit and, if there are several 
marks, whether they refer to form or content. The general im- 
pression may also suffice. The main requirement is thorough 
work, although the individual natures of the pupils should by no 
means be entirely neglected. 

3. Who gives this individual help ? — Individual help to back- 
ward pupils is given by a class teacher daily after the regular les- 
sons. Those members, generally candidates, who are interested 
in these lessons, may give one or more lessons weekly after they 
have informed themselves concerning the special arrangements 
for the marking scale, the correction of mistakes, the treatment 
of the pupils, and so on. 

4. How is this carried on? — During these lessons the greatest 



I02 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

quiet possible for the work of the pupils and strict obedience to 
the rules given should be exacted ; if an explanation which con- 
cerns all pupils is to be given, the attention and cooperation of all 
pupils should be demanded. It is therefore recommended, in 
order that the teacher may thoroughly and lovingly devote him- 
self to individual weak pupils, that not too many pupUs should 



2. REGULATIONS CONCERNING DISCIPLINE 

Introduction 

Discipline has the same end as instruction, the formation of a 
moral and religious character in the pupil. DiscipHne, however, 
aims at influencing directly mind and wiU, whereas instruction 
tries to reach the same goal indirectly through enlarging the 
horizon of the pupil's ideas. 

§ 17. The following arrangements are means of discipline. 

1. The morning devotion. — Every school day begins with a 
general devotion for all classes. Prayer is said at the close of 
school. 

2. The weekly devotion is conducted either by a regular teacher, 
a class teacher, or a candidate at the beginning or at the end of a 
school week. 

3. The following occasions are celebrated by the school, 
(o) Birthdays of the Emperor and Grand Duke. 

ib) Christmas. 

(c) May festival. 

{d) Confirmation of pupils. 

4. School excursions. 

5. The school's saving fund is especially to be recommended 
to those pupils who take part in the school excursions, so that they 
may save the money necessary for these expenses. 

6. The candidates should be heartily interested in the enrich- 
ment of the school library. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IO3 

7. Offices of pupils. — Individual pupils are appointed to differ- 
ent duties in the school, garden, or workshop. Every office is 
a post of honor. Two pupUs especially (Klassenordner) , who are 
named alphabetically and who change weekly, have the following 
duties : — 

(a) To keep blackboard, sponge, and chalk in order. 

(b) To clean the teacher's desk and chair. 

(c) To open the windows during recess periods. 

(d) To write the date on a Uttle slate in every classroom. 

(e) To procure clean water in jug and basin. 
(/) To fill the inkstands upon request. 

One pupil should be permanently intrusted with the care of 
books, copy books, and other means of instruction in the class- 
room cupboard, as well as with bringing, distributing, and collect- 
ing them. 

Individual pupils are also to be intrusted for a whole semester 
with the bringing and putting away of means of instruction for 
different subjects, such as maps, rulers, compasses. In all these 
cases the individual nature of the pupil should be taken into con- 
sideration as far as possible. 

Every duty should aim at forming a fixed habit. 

8. The record hook. — Candidates as well as regular teachers 
should try through personal visits to get acquainted with the 
parents of the pupils and to influence them spiritually. They are 
recommended to watch every single pupil during the lesson, in 
the garden or workshop, or on the playground, to acquaint them- 
selves more closely with them on excursions and journeys, and to 
enter into their thoughts and their conditions of Ufe. If this is 
done in the right way, the idea of being questioned will not be 
w^akened in the pupil. On the contrary, the teacher wiU win the 
heart, and the pupil will freely converse about everything on his 
mind, will gladly seek his teacher's advice, and so their mutual 
intercourse may indirectly serve character building. The obser- 
vations made are collected, and written in a special book for each 



I04 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

• class, and if enough material is collected, it is made into a personal 
record and written in a record book. 

The following scheme should be observed : — 

(a) Home conditions. 

(b) Age, previous training. 

(c) External appearance, physical features, state of health, 
carriage and look, order in dress and in school equipment. 

(d) Development of the intellectual side (abilities, participa- 
tion in the lessons, home work, favorite work, and tendencies). 

(e) Expression of emotions (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, re- 
ligious emotions ; intercourse with members of his home, and with 
teachers and comrades). 

(/) Proposals for the correction of defects in government, 
instruction, or discipline. 

In making these records, special attention should be paid to 
the causal connection of observations and experiences. 

3. PUNISHMENTS 

All school punishments should be considered as corrective 
means which influence the pupil either directly (habituating him 
to order) or indirectly. They can be divided into two groups: 
punishments for government and punishments for discipHne. 

I . Punishments for government. — Punishments for government 
aim at reestablishing the disturbed order during instruction. 
The goal to be aimed at is therefore avoidance of punishments 
as far as possible through constant training. 

§ 18. Special points to be attended to are : Children who enter 
after the teacher must remain at the door until the teacher teUs 
them to sit down. The teacher must not wait too long before 
giving this command, but he should first ask an explanation of the 
late arrival. The punishment for this loss of time, if it is disadvan- 
tageous to the pupil in his lessons, is to make up the work missed 
under supervision of a regular or a class teacher. In order to re- 
move the cause of such loss of time the teachers should often 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 105 

communicate with parents (communication blanks, parents' 
evenings). 

§ 19. The rules of government for the preservation of order 
during schooltime can be divided into special and general rules. 
The teacher should usually try to get along with the general rules. 

In ascending order the general rules are : — ■ 

(a) To stop instruction. 

(b) To tap on the table. 

(c) To warn the whole class or a whole bench. 

(d) To censure and threaten pupils without naming them. 
Special rules are : — 

(a) Sharp look and motion with the hand. 

(b) Speaking to the pupil. 

(c) Threat of punishment and naming the pupil. 

(d) To have the pupil leave his seat and stand aside or in the 
background. In such cases, however, attention should be paid 
to the pupil's attitude. 

(e) Personal report to the teacher concerned or to the regular 
teacher. 

§ 20. In inflicting punishments the ascending steps should be 
followed by the teacher. No step may either be overlooked or 
repeated. If a punishment has been threatened, it should really 
be given in case of a repetition of the offense. Exclusion from the 
class, or standing outside the door, or corporal punishment is not 
permitted. 

§ 21. It is not allowed to keep pupils in school as a means of 
punishment. If the pupil, however, misses part of the instruc- 
tion through his own fault as weU as on account of tardiness, he 
should be punished by being required to do the work after school- 
time. 

§ 22. If several pupils cannot accomphsh the same work, they 
may not be punished, but a more thorough, methodical treatment 
of the material should be introduced; the teacher should always 
first seek within himself the reasons for the mistakes made. 



I06 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

§ 23. If the home work is neglected, the punishments should 
always be graded. Before the next lesson period the pupil must 
appear with the deficient work done ; that is to say, he must 
recite the lesson or present the work to the teacher outside of school 
or do the work after schooltime under personal supervision of 
the teacher. 

§ 24. It is just as wrong to give special work hours as punish- 
ments as it is to make pupils copy too often badly done home 
work, although it is quite appropriate to inculcate the right form 
by requiring the pupil to copy the written work two or three 
times if this result cannot be reached otherwise. 

§ 25. If the pupU has forgotten to bring something which is 
needed in instruction and during a lesson, he should show the 
teacher before the next lesson what he needs for the lesson, and if 
the forgetfulness occurs again, he must do the same for some time, 
before each lesson. In order to train the pupils in orderliness, the 
class teacher must, from time to time, inspect the books. Special 
attention should be given that the pupils do not bring to school 
books or copy books which they do not need. 

§ 26. Wherever absences and breaches of order and customs 
violate standing rules and arrangements, the latter are to be ex- 
pressly called to the attention of the pupils. 

§ 27. Unbecoming, untimely questions and manifestations of 
doubts must be put aside without further discussion. Questions 
and doubts which the children do not ask for their instruction, 
but only to embarrass the teacher, injure his authority. Teachers 
can sometimes refer during the lesson or during conversation to 
these questions and show the pupils how wrong or how irrelevant 
they were. 

2. Punishments for discipline. — The second group of punish- 
ments are those for discipline. By them the pupil's mind is to be 
influenced indirectly. In such cases, more important than the 
correction of mistakes and the watching out for the violation of 
rules and for punishments are positive means for sharpening, 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 107 

warning, and stimulating the moral judgment, such as free con- 
versations, frequent discussion of events from the moral point 
of view, and encouragement to put into action worthful ideas; 
for instance, in the form of thankfulness, pity, and affection. 

§ 28. If rules have been violated, the following facts should 
be considered : the teacher must learn the facts without any kind 
of force ; by no means, however, should this be done through one 
inquiry only, because the boy only too easily escapes such inquiries 
through quick falsehood. The teacher should beware of getting 
a false notion of the facts through a mistaken construction of what 
has happened. He should not be influenced against the offender 
by previous misdoings or by accompanying circumstances. 

§ 29. The punishment should correspond to the offense and 
may be raised to corporal punishment, which, however, may only 
be given by the class teacher concerned. Discussion of the case 
before the class is to be regarded as a special punishment. 

§ 30. In general the following points should be considered : 
the principal rule for all punishment is that it must be proportionate 
to the offense. It must be given without passion, with the neces- 
sary moral earnestness ; but cold disciphne may not be substituted 
for affectionate treatment. 

§ 31. The punishment must lead the pupU to a recognition of 
his mistake. His comrades must also be made to feel that the 
punishment is just. 

Leipsic. — For j&fty years Leipsic has been prominent 
as the home of pedagogical seminars. The first one, 
founded by Ziller as a private enterprise in 1861, was 
modeled after the seminar at Jena and, like it, was con- 
ducted on Herbartian principles in both theory and 
practice. Its purpose was the training of teachers and 
school ofi&cials, and the advancement of pedagogical 



I08 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

science. Students were required to spend one year hear- 
ing lectures in the philosophical sciences — logic, psychol- 
ogy, aesthetics, metaphysics, ethics, philosophy of reli- 
gion, and the history of pedagogy — before they entered 
the seminar. They then spent one year in observation, 
practice teaching, and criticism of the work done. The 
total number of hours required did not exceed five per 
week, but at least two hours of teaching in the prac- 
tice school were necessary. The practice school was 
under the immediate direction of three well-trained 
candidates; one chosen from the field of theology, 
the second from that of philology, and the third 
from that of mathematics. These teachers taught 
in the school and supervised the practice teach- 
ing under the general superintendence of the director. 
The school consisted of three classes, with six boys in 
each, the lowest representing the Volksschule, in the 
years from six to nine ; the second the Realschule, in the 
years from nine to twelve ; and the third the Gymnasium, 
in the years from twelve to fifteen. The pupils were 
taken from a philanthropic institution and received 
nine years of schooling. All the work was carefully 
criticized, and the results were recorded for the benefit of 
pedagogical science. There were three weekly gatherings 
of the students: the theoreticum, the praticum, and the 
conference. The first was devoted mainly to the presen- 
tation of reports by students upon some educational topic, 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 109 

usually theoretical. Voluntary efforts in this direction 
were strongly encouraged. Two half -hour practicums 
were held each week. They consisted of trial lessons 
given by a student in the presence of all the other mem- 
bers of the seminar. He must have made careful prepara- 
tion for this lesson under the supervision of the director 
or the regular teachers. The conference was devoted to 
discussion and criticism of the trial lessons and to a con- 
sideration of school facilities in general. The director gave 
the final word on all these occasions. Ziller's seminar, 
always a private institution, continued until the death of 
the founder in 1882. After that time the theoretical part 
of it was continued through the pedagogical society, 
which still survives, but the practice school disappeared. 
Two other seminars, also private efforts, have been 
conducted by university professors. Dr. Striimpell, as- 
sociate {ausserordentlicher) professor of philosophy and 
pedagogy, directed one, the special purpose of which was 
the application of psychological principles to education. 
The members consisted, for the most part, of teachers 
from the Volksschulen who were preparing for higher 
positions. The other, which still exists, is led by Dr. 
Hofmann, professor of theology. The purpose of this 
is, by means of lectures and the industrious visitation 
of schools of all kinds, to give theological students an 
insight into the different parts of the German educa- 
tional system. It has special value because of the 



no TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

fact that clergymen, particularly those in the rural 
districts, have much responsibility in school affairs. 

There are now at Leipsic two pedagogical seminars 
which stand in official connection with the university, — 
a philosophical-pedagogical seminar, led by Professor 
Volkelt, and a practical-pedagogical seminar, directed by 
Professor Jungmann, who is also rector of the Thomas 
Gymnasium. The former, holding weekly sessions of two 
hours each, is devoted to the consideration of educational 
questions from the broadly philosophical point of view. 
The latter, holding weekly sessions of two hours each in 
the Gymnasium, is devoted to visiting the classes of ex- 
perienced teachers, practice teaching by students, and 
criticism of the work done. Professor Jungmann is as- 
sisted by teachers in the Gymnasium, — Dr. Hartman, 
who conducts the work in English and French, and Dr. 
Lehman, who is in charge of mathematics and the natu- 
ral sciences. Professor Jungmann himself directs the 
work in Latin, Greek, and history. Students visit the 
classes of these teachers, and occasionally teach classes 
under their supervision. Some students take the work 
for a single semester, others continue it for two or three 
semesters. The work of these seminars is elective, as are 
all other courses in the university, but an increasingly 
large number of students attend them. 

The official regulations of the practical seminar are as 
follows : — 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS III 

"§ I. The purpose of the seminar is to instruct its members 
in the appKcation of their scientific learning to practical teaching 
in the higher schools, 

" § 2. The seminar stands in connection with a Gymnasium 
in Leipsic. The director or a teacher of the Gymnasium has the 
leadership of the seminar and at the same time the authority to 
give instruction in pedagogy in the university. For the direction 
of special exercises in particular subjects, two other teachers in 
the Gymnasium or Realgymnasium are associated with him, so that 
three subject groups are formed which include, as a rule, the an- 
cient languages, the modern languages, and mathematics and the 
natural sciences. The Gymnasium places pupils, equipment, and 
rooms at the service of the seminar. 

"§3. The exercises of the seminar consist in so-called model 
lessons ; in practice teaching by the members, who are assigned 
to this work on the basis of written lesson plans ; in general dis- 
cussion of these lessons ; in other didactical and pedagogical dis- 
cussions; and in the visitation of planned periods of instruction 
in the Gymnasium. 

"§ 4. Students of academic subjects that are required for 
the position of teacher in the higher schools, can become members 
of the seminar after they have pursued their studies some time, 
as a rule at least four semesters, or, if they attend the university 
under the provision of June i, 1865, two semesters. Students 
who have not fulfilled these conditions may be admitted as hearers. 
In either case the applicants are required to introduce themselves 
personally to the director of the seminar and to the leader of their 
particular subject group. 

"§5. The members of the seminar are required to attend 
regularly the general sessions as weU as the meetings of their own 
subject groups, and to take part in the exercises, especially in the 
practice teaching. The frequent visitation of other subject groups 
is urgently recommended. 

"§ 6. For the members of the seminar a niimber of scholar- 



112 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

ships have been established in the assignment of which residents 
of the kingdom of Saxony are given the preference. These schol- 
arships are assigned at the close of the semester by the director 
in accordance with the decision of the leaders of the seminar, on 
the basis of the work done in the seminar and the attendance upon 
the different groups. In case a scholarship is given to a person 
who has also received one of the scholarships granted by the 
Ministry of Public Instruction, or to a person who has also the 
scholarship granted to the holder as a member of the philological 
seminar, it is reduced to half the usual amount. 

"§7. The members have a right to the use of the seminar 
library. 

"§ 8. Upon his departure from the seminar every member 
can demand a certificate, which is to be given b)'^ the leader of the 
subject group and countersigned by the director. These certifi- 
cates must be affixed to the petition to the Royal Ministry of 
PubHc Instruction when the candidates are admitted to the Probe- 
jahr. 

"§ 9. The director is required to present to the Royal Min- 
istry at the close of each semester a list of the members and hearers 
of the seminar and a short report concerning the work of the 
seminar. 

"§ 10. Every member receives a copy of these rules upon enter- 
ing the seminar." 

THE GYMNASIAL SEMINAR 

A. The Royal Pedagogical Seminar in Berlin was the 

first gymnasial or higher school seminar estabHshed with 
state funds and managed directly by the state. As has 
been said, the Minister of State, von Zedhtz, tried in vain 
to estabhsh at Halle an institution that should have as its 
particular object the training of teachers for the higher 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS I13 

schools along distinctively pedagogical lines. Schutz 
accepted a call to Jena, Trapp failed in his efforts, and 
Wolf insisted successfully upon changing the pedagogical 
seminar into a philological seminar. Von Zedlitz was not 
to be baffled in his purpose, however, and the same year 
that the pedagogical seminar disappeared at Halle, 
Friederich Gedike, director of the Fr. Werder^sches 
Gymnasium in Berlin, a very able and much-honored 
schoolman, received from the Oherschulkollegium an 
invitation to draw up plans for the " establishment of 
a free institution for school teachers in the higher 
schools." 

The seminar was opened in connection with Gedike's 
school. Fries writes concerning it: — 

"Its purpose was stated as the training of experienced and 
skillful teachers for Gymnasien and Latin schools, consequently 
the instruction was to be both theoretical and practical. This 
instruction would be gained through a study of pedagogical trea- 
tises and the best writings on schools and education, which should 
be furnished by the hbrary to be established in connection with the 
seminar; and also through the visiting of classes and practice 
under the supervision of the director and according to his assign- 
ment. The greatest possible regard for gymnasial instruction was 
shown. For the practical training of the candidates the further 
assistance of three talented, experienced, and trained teachers was 
provided. The seminar was open to young men who had already 
finished their studies. They were accepted after examination 
and the giving of a trial lesson. Gedike himself would have ad- 
mitted also candidates who had finished the Gymnasium with honor 
but had not yet attended the university. These he would have 



114 TRAINING OF TEACHERS POR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

trained to give instruction in the lower classes ; indeed he proposed 
that graduates of the Gymnasium who showed unusual inclination 
and talent for teaching should be trained for their future calling 
by means of actual practice. 

"The seminar was established at Easter, 1788, and later in 
the year it was given fixed form through a particular bill of instruc- 
tions. According to this the members of the seminar were re- 
quired to produce a pedagogical essay every three months, the sub- 
ject to be chosen by themselves but to stand in the closest possible 
relation to their own practice. These essays were read and criti- 
cized in the monthly sessions. Written opinions concerning each 
were read at the following session. This method of treatment was 
very thorough, but it required too much time to carry it out; 
because the sessions, in which the assistants of the director and all 
the regular teachers of the school took as much part as they de- 
sired, were occupied with other subjects also; as, for example, 
new pedagogical publications and reports concerning school exam- 
inations and school regulations. The candidates visited the 
classes of the director and other teachers of the institution as well 
as one another's classes. They had ten hours of teaching, in 
subjects which changed every half year. They stood subject to 
order in case of inspection, substitution, or necessary absence of 
the director, and they served as official advisers of the classes 
in which they gave instruction. As the instructions contained 
pedagogical advice which was purposeful and based upon intelli- 
gent experience, the candidates found special opportunity for 
exercise in training in the fact that they were assigned as tutors 
to such pupils as stood in need of general oversight and particular 
care on account of disorder, inattention, or laziness. The budget 
of the institution amounted to one thousand thalers [about $750], 
from which each candidate received a stipendium of one hundred 
and twenty thalers. Even though the introduction to theory 
stood somewhat in the background, on the whole, the institution 
was effective, and it soon won so much regard and confidence that 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II5 

several candidates were called directly from the seminar to im- 
portant ofl&cial positions." ^ 

This seminar still exists, although in 1869 its direct 
leadership passed to the provincial school board. It 
may be taken as t3^ical of a group of about a dozen 
higher-school seminars whose immediate direction is 
vested in a member of the provincial school board. In 
such seminars the candidate receives his theoretical 
instruction from the director of the seminar and his 
practical training under the supervision of the director 
of the higher school in which he teaches. The work 
itself is practically the same as that done in the ordi- 
nary gymnasial seminar in which the director of the 
school is also director of the seminar. 

B. The Seminarium Praeceptorum, at Halle, is an 
excellent example of the more common type of gymna- 
sial seminars. It was originally established by August 
Hermann Francke (i 663-1 727), the illustrious founder of 
the Franckesche Stiftungen in that city. Francke was 
both a prophet and a path-finder in the field of education. 
While serving as professor of theology in the university and 
pastor of a church in the suburbs of the city, he found ad- 
ditional outlet for his indomitable philanthropic energies 
in the founding, in 1695, of a free school for poor children. 
This was followed by the establishment in quick succes- 
sion of a school for the children of the middle classes, 1695 ; 
^ Fries, W., Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, 50. 



Il6 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

an orphanage, 1695; a Latin school {now SiGymnasuim), 
1697 ; two boarding homes for pupils, 1696 and 1697 ; a 
bookstore and a drug store, 1698; a book bindery, 1701; 
a mission association, 1705 ; a fund for the care of young 
women, 1 706 ; and a fund for the printing and distribu- 
tion of Bibles, 17 10. All these institutions were placed 
together under one management on a tract of land con- 
taining about fort3^-fLve acres and lying near the center of 
the present city of Halle. Since Francke's death, there 
have been added a city choir, 1808 ; anOberrealschule and a 
higher girls' school, 1835 ; a Vorschule for the Gymnasium 
and Oberrealschule, 1845 > ^^^ more recently a seminar 
or normal school for the training of female teachers, and 
a gymnasial seminar for the training of male teachers 
for the higher schools. The total enrollment of pupils in 
all the schools is now about thirty-three hundred. 

At its beginning, this institution had an endowment of 
only seven gulden, the gift of an unknown friend; but it 
had rare treasures in the faith and executive ability of its 
founder. The monument erected to Francke's memory 
on the school grounds bears the significant words, " He 
trusted God." Both his faith and his works so appealed 
to men of wealth that means was not lacking to carry out 
his constantly enlarging plans. It was not so easy, how- 
ever, to secure teachers of suitable character and training. 
With real constructive genius Francke set about training 
teachers both for his schools and for others. The means 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II7 

at his command enabled him to provide a free table for 
impecunious young men of ability who were willing to 
devote themselves diligently to preparation for the work 
of teaching. Others came who were able to support them- 
selves. All were required to pledge themselves to spend 
five years in preparation for their wrok. In 1706 there 
were seventy-two members of the seminarium prcBcep- 
torum, and in 1709 about ninety. It was soon learned, 
however, that many of these candidates for the teaching 
office were poorly prepared for their work and showed lit- 
tle promise. Consequently, in 1707, Francke divided the 
seminar and formed what he called the seminarium 
selectum praceptorum^ whose members, showing greater 
ability than the others, he desired to train for positions in 
the gymnasial schools. The training given these men was 
of two kinds, academic and practical. The former con- 
sisted in the study of subject matter, mainly the lan- 
guages. Particular emphasis was placed upon the mastery 
of the Latin language for conversational use. The candi- 
dates were given opportunity to acquaint themselves 
thoroughly with the actual work and problems of the 
school. Instruction in the principles of teaching and the 
observation of good teaching preceded actual practice. 
At one time there were two inspectors who did no teaching 
themselves but spent their time directing the observa- 
tions and practice teaching of the candidates. Weekly 
meetings were held for the discussion of observations and 



Il8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

practice teaching. The seminar stood in very close con- 
nection with the Latin school or Gymnasium. It was so 
prosperous that in 17 15 a house was built for the use of 
candidates as a home. 

But the movement was ahead of its time. The regular 
university triennium was usually regarded as long enough 
in which to prepare for the work of teaching, and young 
men became unwilling to pledge themselves to attendance 
upon the seminar for five years. Before Francke's death 
the attendance had considerably decreased, and in 1779 
the seminar was discontinued entirely. 

The modern seminarium prcEceptorum, or gymnasial 
seminar of the Franckesche Stiftimgen, was established in 
1 88 1. In the nearly two centuries that had elapsed since 
the founding of the first one by Francke, official opinion 
concerning the necessity and the methods of training 
teachers for the higher schools had advanced. For more 
than a half century the candidate had been required to 
spend one year in trial teaching after three years' study 
at the university. Dr. Otto Frick, who became director 
of the Franckesche Stijtungen in 1880, brought to the 
position a breadth of scholarship, force of character, 
wealth of experience, and zeal for the work of the teacher 
that peculiarly fitted him to become the second founder of 
the seminarium prceceptorum. The work was undertaken 
as a private effort and was carried on so efficiently and 
vigorously that it soon became a powerful influence in 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II9 

determining the course of teacher training in Prussia. 
Fries says that " from here went out the impulse for the 
estabhshment of the Prussian gymnasial seminar." ^ 

In his plans for the seminar, Frick assumed a knowledge 
of subject matter on the part of the candidates, since the 
three years' study at the university, followed by the 
state examination, provided for that, and he devoted his 
efforts to training along pedagogical lines, both theoretical 
and practical. The former consisted of a study of general 
and special pedagogy with an introduction to pedagogical 
literature. The latter consisted of the observation of 
good teaching, the preparation of lesson plans, practice 
teaching in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasmm, and the 
discussion of both theoretical and practical questions 
under the leadership of the director. Frick made much 
use of the Volksschulen and Biirgerschulen for purposes 
of observation, as he believed that in them the problems 
of method could be better studied than in the higher 
schools. The modern gymnasial seminar, which now ex- 
ists throughout Prussia and to a considerable extent in 
other German states, owes much to the practical work 
and the writings of Frick from 1881 to his death in 1892. 
In 1884 Frick and a colleague founded Lehrproben und 
Lehrgdnge, a quarterly magazine devoted to a discussion 
of the problems connected with the training of teachers 
for the higher schools, and this is continued under the 
management of his successor. 

^ Fries, W., Die Vorbildung der Lehrer, p. 69. 



I20 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

With this brief historical sketch we pass to a somewhat 
more detailed account of the seminarium prceceptorum or 
higher school seminar as it exists at Halle to-day. The 
description is based upon observation, made during six 
months' attendance upon the meetings of the seminar and 
rather close association with the director and its members. 

The director is the most important factor in the success 
of a pedagogical seminar. Dr. Wilhelm Fries, director of 
the Franckesche Stiftungen and of the seminar since 1892, 
is a worthy successor of Frick and Francke. He was born 
at Landeshut in Schlesien, October 23, 1845, ^^^ received 
his university preparatory training in the Gymnasium at 
Schweidnitz. In the University of Breslau he studied 
classical philology, German language and literature, and 
history, receiving the degree of doctor of philosophy in 
1870. His Probejahr was spent in Breslau. He was 
appointed as regular teacher {ordentlicher Lehrer) and 
librarian in the Gymnasium in Bielefeld, and later as 
teacher (Oberlehrer) in the Gymnasium in Barmen. In 
1 880- 1 88 1 he was director of the Gymnasium at Eutin. 
From 1881 to 1892 he served as director of the Latina 
(Gymnasium) of the Franckesche Stiftungen and as co- 
director of the Franckesche Stiftungen. Since 1892 he 
has been director of the Franckesche Stiftungen, since 
1895 director of Wissenschaftlichen Prufungscommissionen 
for teachers in the higher schools, and since 1897 pro- 
fessor of pedagogy in the university of Halle. In 1898 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 121 

he received the degree of doctor of theology from 
the university of Halle and also the title Geheimer 
Regierungsrat. 

In a career largely occupied with executive duties Dr. 
Fries has yet found time for much writing. In the field 
of Latin and Greek, the subjects in which he specialized 
in the university and which he taught in the Gymnasium, 
he has written : Neubearbeihmg der lateinischen Gram- 
matik von Ellendt-Seyfert; Lateinisches Ubungsbuch fur 
alle Klassen; Das Memoriren im lateinischen Unter- 
richt, Programm, Eutin, 1881 ; many articles in Neue 
Jahrbilcher, in Zeitschrift fiir Gymnasialwesen, and in 
Lehrproben und Lehrgdnge; De anacoluthis Sophoclis, 
Breslau, 187 1 ; De casibus absolutis qui dicuntur, Bielefeld, 
1875 ; Neuausgabe von Arnold, Die griechischen Studien 
des Horaz, 1890 ; Schulausgabe von Caesar Bellum Galli- 
cum, 1902. His pedagogical writings include the follow- 
ing : Die Vorbildiing der Lehrer fiir das ho'here Schulamt, 
Munich, 1895 (new edition in preparation) ; many articles 
in Zeitschrift fiir Gymnasialwesen, in Lehrproben und Lehr- 
gdnge, in Lexis' Das deutsche Schulwesen, and in Die Reform 
des hdheren Schulwesens . Historical writings in connection 
with the Franckesche Stiftungen include Francke's Grosser 
Aufsatz, Halle, 1894 ; Die Franckesche Stiftungen in ihrem 
zweiten Jahrhundert, Halle, 1898 ; articles in Lehrproben 
und Lehrgdnge, and in Encyclopddisches Handbuch der 
Pddagogik by Rein. He is principal editor of Lehrproben 



122 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

und Lehrgdnge, a quarterly magazine which is the leading 
publication of its kind in Germany. 

Dr. Fries impresses the observer as a dignified, courte- 
ous gentleman, at once scholarly and military in spirit 
and bearing. His white hair and beard give him a vener- 
able appearance; but his quick, firm, elastic step, his 
appreciation of the humorous, and the vigorous energy 
of his mental faculties show that he is still young. In a 
very important sense he brings to his position the ex- 
perience of many years without age. He is a product 
of classical training in Gymnasium and university, and he 
stands for the spirit of discipline which that training 
represents. A true Prussian, he would drill boys in school 
as soldiers are drilled in camp, but this dominant charac- 
teristic does not prevent an appreciation of youthful 
weakness and human sentiment. His attitude towards 
the candidates in his seminar is that of the friendly but 
frank German official who is responsible for the sharp 
correction of errors. He knows the details of school 
work in all classes of the schools under his direction. 
For many years he has been actively interested in the 
various problems of school organization and adminis- 
tration as well as in the actual work of the classroom. 
Highly esteemed in his own school and community, and 
prominent in the educational councils of the state, he 
stands among the foremost of those scholarly, capable 
men who are so efficiently directing the practical train- 
ing of future teachers in the German higher schools. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 23 

The members of the seminar are nine men who have 
passed the state examination (Staatsexamen) . Five of 
them have also received the degree of doctor of philosophy, 
and part of the others are working towards it. Of these 
men it may be said in general that they are of good pres- 
ence, strong and energetic both physically and mentally, 
courteous and agreeable in manner. The following facts 
concerning each will enable the reader to understand 
better the personnel and the work of the seminar. 

Numbers i and 5, as given in the table, have performed 
the required year of military service. 

Number 2 first prepared himself for the work of a prac- 
tical chemist, but changed to the profession of teaching 
because it seemed to offer better chance for promotion. 

Number 3 taught one year in a private school before 
passing the state examination. 

Numbers i, 4, 6, 7, and 8 are assistants (Erzieker) in the 
boarding homes of the Franckesche Stiftungen. 

Number 9 served about twenty years as a pastor before 
passing the state examination for the position of teacher in 
the higher schools. Besides the two hours of teaching 
which he does in the Oherrealschule of the Franckesche 
Stiftungen, he teaches thirty-six hours per week in private 
schools of the city. He will be ready for appointment 
at the close of the Seminarjahr, having been specially 
excused by the Minister of Education from serving the 
usual Prohejahr. 



124 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 





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INSTITUTIONS POR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 12$ 

The pedagogical studies, including psychology and 
philosophy, pursued by these candidates while they were 
in the university, are reported as follows. The figure 
following the subject indicates the number of hours per 
week during one semester : — 

No. I. Introduction to the pedagogical classics of the 
eighteenth century, i ; discussion of Herbart's outline of 
pedagogical lectures, i ; discussion of Rousseau's Emile 
and Locke's Some Thoughts on Education, i ; history of the 
Prussian school system, i ; history of pedagogy, i ; the 
problem of immortality in the history of philosophy, i ; 
Christianity and the theory of evolution, i ; logic, 4 ; 
psychology, 4 ; history of philosophy of the nineteenth 
century, 2; exercises in Plato's Phcedo, i. 

No. 2. History of philosophy, 3, 2 semesters ; psychol- 
ogy? 2 ; pedagogical exercises, i . 

No. 3. Introduction to philosophy, 2 ; selected chap- 
ters from the history of ancient philosophy, 2 ; history of 
philosophy, 4 ; logic, 4 ; psychology, 4 ; introduction to 
£esthetics, 2 ; introduction to the pedagogical classics of 
the eighteenth century, 2 ; history of pedagogy, 2. 

No. 4. History of pedagogy, i. 

No. 5. Introduction to philosophy, i ; logic, 2 ; 
history of philosophy, 3, 3 semesters ; psychology, 3 ; 
history of pedagogy, i ; philosophical exercises, 2,3 semes- 
ters ; ethics, 2 ; general pedagogy, 2 ; pedagogical semi- 
nar (Jena), 3; philosophy of religion, i. 



126 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

No. 6. History of pedagogy, 4 ; history of modern 
pedagogy, 2 ; history of philosophy to Kant, 4 ; history 
of modern philosophy, 4 ; psychology, 4 ; logic, 4 ; the 
freedom of the will, 2. 

No. 7. History of philosophy, 5, 2 semesters ; psy- 
chology, 3 ; Kant and his philosophy, i ; logic, 2 ; in- 
troduction to philosophy, ; history of pedagogy, 2 ; 
introduction to pedagogical classics, 2 ; selected chapters 
in didactics, 2. 

No. 8. Plato and Kant, 2 ; introduction to the peda- 
gogical classics of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- 
turies, 2 ; history of pedagogy since the Middle Ages, 
2 ; introduction to the pedagogical classics of the nine- 
teenth century, 2. 

No. 9. History of philosophy, 6, 2 semesters ; Kant 
4 ; Rousseau, 2 ; psychology, 4 ; pedagogy, 3, 2 semesters. 

As representative of the amount of university training 
received by these candidates in the subjects which they 
have prepared themselves to teach, the following lists of 
lecture courses are given. The German university stu- 
dent is absolutely free in the choice of the lectures that 
he attends ; consequently he usually pursues those sub- 
jects in which he is most interested, and those which 
may be of future use. Roughly speaking, the courses 
named below may be said to constitute about three 
fourths of the whole number of courses attended by 
these students during their university course. Candidate 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 27 

number i represents the ancient languages and history, 
number 3 the modern languages and geography, and 
number 5 mathematics and the sciences. 

No. I. Latin. — Latin grammar, 4 ; history of Roman 
historiography and interpretation of the Annals of Taci- 
tus, 4 ; philological prose seminar (exercises in writing 
and speaking Latin and in grammatical repetitions), 2, 2 
semesters ; Latin etymology and theory of words, i ; 
Catullus, 2 ; antiquities of the Roman state, 3 ; Tacitus's 
Germania, 2 ; prosody of the Greeks and Romans, 3 ; 
Horace, 2 ; Cicero's life and works with interpretation of 
the second book of De legibus, 3 ; outlines of Latin syntax, 
3 ; interpretation of Plautus's Miles gloriosus, an intro- 
duction to old Latin language and prosody, 2 ; Juvenal, 
2 ; philological seminar, interpretation of Varro's De 
lingua Latina, Book V, 2. 

Greek. — Interpretation of selected choruses {Chor- 
gesdnge) of Sophocles as an introduction to the art form 
of the Attic tragedy, 3 ; philological pro-seminar, inter- 
pretation of selected shorter orations of Lysias, 2 ; his- 
tory of Greek poetry, 3 ; antiquities of the Greek state, 4 ; 
Aristophanes's Birds, 4 ; philological pro-seminar, inter- 
pretation of ^schylus's Prometheus, 2 ; Thucydides, 4 ; 
introduction to Greek comic poets, i ; Greek syntax, 3 ; 
Euripides, life and interpretation of his works, 4 ; Plato's 
Cratylus as an introduction to scientific etymology, i ; 
Homeric accidence, 3 ; Demosthenes's Oration against 



128 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Leptines, 2 ; Plato's life and writings and interpreta- 
tion of the Symposium, 4 ; Greek grammar, 4 ; philologi- 
cal seminar, interpretation of Hesiod's Works and Days, 2 ; 
Greek dialects, 4. 

History. — Sources of German history to the end of the 
Middle Ages, 4 ; general history in the period of the Anti- 
reformation and the Thirty Years' War (1555-1648), 4; 
modern history since the Thirty Years' War, 4 ; Prussia's 
fall and rise in the time of Bonaparte, i ; history of the 
Roman imperial age, 4 ; Greek history, Part I, 4 ; history 
of the German constitution, 4 ; introduction to ancient 
history, 2 ; historical seminar, 4, 8 semesters. 

History of art. — Homeric statuary, i; Olympia, i; 
sculptors of the Italian Renaissance, i ; history of Greek 
art in the Hellenistic period, 2. 

No. 3. English. — Modern English literature, 4; the 
present-day English novel, 2 ; historical grammar of the 
English language, 4 ; modern English prosody, 2 ; exer- 
cises of the English seminar, 2, 7 semesters ; life and 
works of Chaucer, 3 ; interpretation of Byron's Childe 
Harold, 2 ; history of Middle English literature, 3 ; 
interpretation of Beowulf, 2 ; course in phonetics for the 
practice of English and French pronunciation, 2 ; history 
of Old English literature, 3 ; life and works of Shakespeare, 
3 ; introduction to the Scottish dialect, 2 ; exercises (speak- 
ing and writing) in Modern English, 2, 4 semesters ; pro- 
nunciation and orthography of Modern English, 2. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 29 

French. — Phonetics and accidence of vulgar Latin, 5 ; 
historical grammar of the French language, 5 ; interpreta- 
tion of old French poetry, 2 ; outline of French literature 
from the beginning to the Revolution, 5 ; interpretation 
of Aucassin et Nicolette, 2 ; romance pro-seminar, 2, 6 
semesters ; history of French literature since the Revolu- 
tion, 5 ; exercises in speaking and writing the French 
language, 2, 6 semesters ; Les rapports litter aires entre la 
France et rAllemagne, 2 ; selected chapters from French 
syntax, 2 ; Moliere, — ; French pronunciation and its 
development, 4; French prosody and (popular) epic 
poetry, 5 ; Les grands classiques frangais, 2. 

Geography. — Distribution of land and water, 2 ; Eu- 
rope (except Central Europe) , 4 ; recent results in geog- 
raphy and ethnology, i ; exercises of the geographical 
seminar, 2, 7 semesters; general geography, 7; Northern 
Central Europe, 2 ; methodics of geography, and of 
geographical instruction, 2 ; geographical conference, 2, 3 
semesters ; history of the development of the earth and its 
inhabitants, 2 ; Australia, America, Africa, 4 ; Darwin- 
ism, especially applied to the development of peoples, 2 ; 
commercial geography, 2, 2 semesters; map making, 
with practical exercises, 2 ; geography of Europe, 3 ; 
Asia, 3 ; Southern Central Europe, 2 ; selected chapters 
in anthropography, 2 ; topographical and geographical 
surveys, with practical exercises, 2 ; German" colonies, 2. 

History. — History of the War of Liberation (1813- 



130 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

181 5), 3; history of Brandenburg-Prussia, 2 ; history of 
the German people, 4 ; history of the Middle Ages from 
the end of the twelfth century, 4 ; history of England, 2 ; 
history of Europe from 1648, 4. 

No. 5. Pure mathematics. Differential calculus, 4 ; 
integral calculus, 4 ; analytical geometry, 4 ; theory of 
functions, 4 ; differential equations, 4 ; partial differential 
equations, 4 ; projective geometry, 4 ; algebra, 4 ; theory 
of numbers, 4 ; mechanics, 4 ; elliptic functions, 4 ; 
theory of time measurement, 2 ; selected chapters in 
analytical functions, i ; theory of quadratic forms, 2 ; 
division and quadrature of the circle, 2 ; mathematical 
approximation methods, 2 ; definite integrals, 4 ; cal- 
culation of variations, 4 ; infinitesimal geometry (theory 
of surfaces) , 4 ; numerous exercises connected with 
seminar. 

Applied mathematics. — Descriptive geometry, 4 ; pop- 
ular astronomy, i ; history of Greek astronomy, 2 ; 
determination of time and position (theory and practice), 
4; measurements of degrees or angles (triangulation), i ; 
methods of calculating adjustments {Ausgleichungsrech- 
nung) , 2 ; graphic statics, 4 ; technical mechanics, 4 ; 
dynamics, 4 ; elasticity and strength of materials, 4 ; 
exercises in surveying, mechanics, descriptive geometry, 
determinations of time and position, etc. 

Physics. — Experimental physics, I and II, 5 ; practi- 
cum- in physical institute, 6 ; theoretical optics, 4 ; theory 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 131 

of electricity and magnetism (compare theoretical me- 
chanics under mathematics) , 4 ; electrical accumula- 
tors {Akumulatoren), special lectures, i ; kinetic theory 
of gas, 2 ; meteorology, 4 ; weather, light, and heat, i ; 
absorption and dispersion of light in crystals, i ; optical 
polarizing power {Drehungsvermogen) in crystals, i ; 
mathematical supplements of experimental physics, 2. 

Chemistry and mineralogy. — Experimental chemistry, 
5, 2 semesters; practicum in chemistry, 15-18, 2 semesters; 
mineralogy, 4 ; petrography, 4 ; crystallography, . 

Unless excused for special reason the unmarried mem- 
bers of the seminar, including those in the Probejahr, are 
expected to live in the boarding homes of the Franckesche 
Stiftungen and to serve as assistants (Erzieher). Their 
duties include the special care of certain pupils and re- 
sponsibility for the general good order of all pupils at all 
times. The needs of the institution seem to make this 
arrangement necessary, and the necessity offers to the 
candidates an opportunity to gain valuable experience 
in caring for boys as individuals as well as in groups. 
This service is peculiar to the seminarium praceptorum. 

Visiting the classes of other teachers is an important 
part of the work of the Seminarjahr, especially in the 
early part of the year. The candidates may visit 
one another's classes. They are expected to visit the 
classes of the regular teachers of different subjects, and 
particularly those of teachers whose subjects are the same 



132 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

as their own. Besides this individual visiting, the mem- 
bers of the seminar, in company with the director, visit 
twice per week in some class where arrangements for the 
visit have previously been made. These visits include 
the Vorschule and the Mittelschule as well as the higher 
schools. On these occasions the teacher is supposed to 
present a pedagogically correct lesson as far as the circum- 
stances of the day permit. Sometimes he hands the 
written outline of his lesson plan to the director as the 
latter enters the room. Members of the seminar are sup- 
posed to take notes of what they see. Two members, a 
referent and a co-referent, are expected to report at length 
at the next meeting of the seminar, when the work of the 
hour is carefully criticized. At the beginning of the year 
the following outline, prepared by former director Frick, 
was given to the members of the seminar by the director 
as the basis for criticism of classroom teaching : — 

POINTS OF VIEW FOR THE CRITICISM OF TEST 
LESSONS 

I. Choice and arrangement of subject matter. 

1. Did the quantity of matter stand in right relation to the 

time? 

2. Was the matter satisfactorily sifted and organized and 

correctly divided ? 

3. Was the arrangement clear and transparent? 

II. Manner of treatment. 

I. Was a purposeful and systematic sequence of instructional 
activities (Lehrthatigkeiten) observed ? namely, 



INSTITUTIONS TOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 33 

a. Preparation for the new by association with the old and 
known. 

b. Presentation or development of the new. 

c. Elaboration {Vertiefung, Begrundung, Riickblick, Zusam- 
menfassung) . 

d. Application (Einiibung, Einpragung). 

2. Was the subject clearly presented, logically developed, 

systematically elaborated, thoroughly practiced, and 
firmly impressed ? 

3. What about the formation and use of questions (especially 

of concentration questions) and their equal distribution 
among all pupils? 

III. Personahty of the teacher. 

What was the carriage of the teacher ? Was he fresh, inspir- 
ing, and Uvely in teaching ? Did he govern the class by 
means of his eye and the strength and warmth of his voice 
in teaching? Was his language correct, articulate, dis- 
tinct, succinct ? Was his reading a model worthy of imita- 
tion ? Was his whole bearing commendable ? 

IV. Discipline. 

Did the teacher know how to keep the entire class busy 
aU the time? Did he keep up the attention and interest 
of the pupils generally to an equal degree ? Did he under- 
stand how to refresh attention and interest at the proper 
time by purposeful external means (pauses, having pupils 
rise, sit erect, speak in concert, and the hke) ? Had he eye 
and ear for the mistakes and misdemeanors of pupils, or 
were there many things which he did not notice at aU 
and others to which he paid no attention ? 
V. Total impression and success of the lesson. 

Was a distinct advance on the part of the pupils noticeable ? 
In this lesson did the teacher show distinct progress, inde- 
pendent understanding of the hints or suggestions given 
him, and careful observation of the same ? 



134 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The candidates are required to do some teaching as part 
of the work of the Seminarjahr. The number of hours is 
not specified, and there is wide difference in practice. The 
teaching done by these candidates is indicated in the table. 
They have entire charge of the class, take their turn in 
the oversight of halls and playgrounds, attend the con- 
ferences of the faculty, and have all the rights and re- 
sponsibilities of regular teachers as far as their relations to 
pupils are concerned ; but their teaching is under constant 
supervision either by the director or by some teacher to 
whose care they have been assigned. It will be noticed 
that some of these candidates are teaching subjects in 
which they have not passed the state examination. This 
is occasioned by a scarcity of teachers for the subjects in 
which they are giving instruction. According to the 
regulations, the amount of teaching done by candidates in 
the Seminarjahr should be small, but practically it de- 
pends upon the number of candidates and teachers in the 
country at large. If the number is great, the number of 
hours assigned to each is proportionately small. If there 
is a scarcity of teachers, as there has been for some ten 
years, the number of hours assigned may nearly or quite 
equal that of a regular teacher. In case a candidate has 
full work, that is, twenty-four hours per week, he is usually 
given the rank of assistant teacher {wissenschaftlicher 
Hilfslehrer) and he is paid eighteen hundred marks, or 
about $430 per year. He may be called upon for nine 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 135 

hours per week without pay. For every hour above this 
number carried throughout the year he receives one hun- 
dred and ten marks, or $26.40. Before he is admitted 
to the rank of candidate, every man must certify in writing 
that he has sufficient means for his support during the 
Seminarjahr and Probejahr. Most candidates receive 
from the state during the Seminarjahr a stipendium of 
about $125, in addition to the amount received for teach- 
ing above nine hours per week ; but when a candidate is 
paid as an assistant, he does not receive the stipendium 
given to those who teach a smaller number of hours. 

Probestunden, or model lessons, are required of the 
candidates, and they are attended by the director and the 
other members of the seminar. The candidate is expected 
to give to the director before the hour a written outline 
of the work he proposes to accomplish. During such 
lessons the director sometimes corrects a false answer, 
insists upon sharper work by some pupil, or asks a ques- 
tion which discloses a weakness in plan or procedure, but 
the candidate is left free to work out his own plan. The 
work of the hour is afterwards criticized in the seminar 
meeting. Both the Probestunde and the hour of criticism 
are a severe strain upon the candidate most concerned. 

All the work of the seminar is brought to a focus in the 
weekly meeting. The session, lasting about an hour and a 
half, is held in a comfortable room, where the director and 
the members sit round a table. According to the 



136 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

German custom the candidates rise as the director enters 
the room, and remain standing until he is seated. The 
work of the session begins without further ceremony. It 
is likely to proceed in some such order as the following : 

1 . Reading of minutes of previous meeting. 

2. Introductory remarks or announcements by the 
director and questions by the members. 

3. Criticism of the teaching of candidates observed by 
the director since the previous meeting. 

4. Criticism of model lessons or of Probestunden. 

5. Reports upon assigned reading. 

Minutes of each meeting are recorded, different 
members of the seminar serving in turn as secretary. In 
some seminars the minutes contain an exhaustive account 
of the proceedings. The character of those kept in this 
seminar is indicated by the following samples : — 

"Minutes of the opening meeting of the seminarium prcsceptorum, 
April 14, 1909. — Director Fries opened the seminarium prcecep- 
torum at 10 a.m., April 14, 1909, and with handshake and signature 
pledged the candidates to the observance of their duties both 
inside and outside of the institution. 

"Wednesday was fixed as session day, the sessions to begin at 
1 1. 10 A.M. in April and 10.10 a.m. after May i. 

" Friday and Saturday were fixed as the days for visiting classes. 

" The director led in the discussion of the position and spirit of 
the teacher and the order of educational activities. 

"As a guide for class instruction Director Fries distributed Frick's 
outline, Points of view for the criticism of test lessons, and the first point, 
'The choice and arrangement of subject matter,' was discussed. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 137 

" Director Fries then gave a short survey of the history of the 
establishment of seminars, with special reference to the seminar 
of the Franckesche Stiftungen. 

" For the work of the next meeting the consideration of Frick's 
point of view was assigned. 

Fries. Faltin. 

" May 19, 1909. — All members present with Director Fries pre- 
siding. 

"Director Fries discussed the exercise books in foreign languages 
submitted to him by Dr. R., Mr. J., and Mr. F., and advised the 
candidates to adopt the system of marking mistakes that is in use 
in the school concerned. 

" Director Fries criticized the lessons of Dr. Re., Dr. Ro., Mr. W. 

> 

and Mr. J. 

"Dr. S. made a report on the treatment of Goethe's Mignon in 
the second class of the girls' Mittelschule. In the discussion following 
this report Director Fries recommended that the statement of the 
objective point be placed at the end rather than at the beginning 
of the lesson. 

"Mr. W. discussed the geography lesson concerning German 
Southwest Africa in the first class of the same school. 

" The visiting hours of the next three weeks must fail on account 
of the school excursion of the Latina, the Whitsuntide holidays, 
and the necessary absence of the director. 

"The last part of the session was taken up with the report by 
Dr. S. on Matthias's Praktische Pddagogik, section 17, 'Language, 
spirit, manner, and humor in instruction'; section 18, 'The 
lecture'; section 19, 'The story and the art of story-telling.' 
In connection with this report Director Fries recommended Frick's 
essay, The art of story-telling. 

" Dr. R. and Mr. H. are to report at the next meeting on Mat- 
thias's Praktische Pddagogik, section 6, 'The value of personahty,' 
and section 7, 'The ideals and the realities of the profession.' The 
next assignment for reading is 0. Willmann's Didaktik als Bildungs- 



138 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

lehre, II, section 80, 'Articulation of the lesson content.' Dr. G. 
will serve as referent and Mr. H. as co-referent. 

Fries. Faltin. 

"June 16, 1909. All present. 

" Following a statement by Dr. R. concerning new books added 
to the library, Director Fries called attention especially to Schap- 
per's Die Phantasie and to Lampe's Methode des geographischen 
Unterrichts. 

" Director Fries criticized a lesson in Latin grammar given by 
Mr. F. 

" A short report was given by Dr. R. concerning the lesson in 
mathematics conducted by Professor S. in the fourth class of the 
Oberrealschule. 

" A detailed discussion followed concerning a test lesson of Dr. S., 
the discussion consisting of self-criticism, general criticism, reply of 
Dr. S., and final criticism given by the Director. 

"The next test lesson will be given on Saturday by Mr. F., sub- 
ject, 'Latin grammar, in the fourth class of the Latina.'' Mr. J. 
is named as referent. 

"Mr. F. reported on section 78 of Willmann's Didaktik, 'The 
psychological moment.' In the discussion following this report 
Director Fries especially called attention to Lange's monograph. 
Apperception, and also to Willmann's book, Aristoteles, a new work 
in the series, Die grossen Erzieher, and to R. Lehmann's Uber den 
deutschen Unterricht. 

"The next report wiU be upon Vortrdge Uber die Hebung der 
geistigen Tdtigkeit durch den Unterricht. The first lecture will be 
discussed by Dr. S., co-referent Dr. R. ; the fourth lecture by Mr. W., 
co-referent Dr. G. 

"Finally Director Fries called attention to the importance of 
pupils' reports and to the responsibility of those who make them ; 
and he assigned for the next lesson a consideration of the two topics, 
'Pedagogical tact ' and 'The making of pupils' reports.' " 
Fries. Roegner. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 139 

The general remarks of the director may have to do 
with new magazines or books, some new order or regula- 
tion, a matter of local school organization, plans for visi- 
tation, or some other topic of current interest. 

The director is Hkely to drop into the class of a candi- 
date at any time. He then makes note of what he sees 
and reports upon it at the next meeting of the seminar. 
His criticisms are direct and practical and sometimes 
very severe. They concern such matters as the repe- 
tition of the pupil's answer by the teacher; loud, dis- 
tinct speaking by both teacher and pupil ; attention ; 
discipline ; the need of more force on the part of the 
teacher ; the value of a cordial attitude of the teacher 
towards the pupil ; the difference between mistakes in 
form and chance mistakes in writing a word in language 
work ; the need of uniformity in the manner of marking 
mistakes by all teachers of any one school ; the im- 
portance of rousing the imagination in some particular 
instance ; methods of questioning pupils ; the necessity of 
slow, accurate dictation, given but once ; the necessity 
of accuracy in information given by the teacher supple- 
mentary to that found in the textbook ; proper division 
^4" wOrL through the semester ; careful planning of each 
•^■•y's lesson with a view to variety; specific questions 
co^icerning method in the teacb'ng of particular subjects. 

<-Viticism of model lessons given by regular teachers is 
first t ^-esented by the referent appointed to report upon it. 



140 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

He reviews the work of the hour, and points out defects 
and merits as they appear to him. The co-referent is 
asked to supplement this report, and then all the mem- 
bers have an opportunity to discuss the lesson and the 
points at issue. The discussion is usually closed by the 
director. The teacher is not present at these times. 

Criticism of Probestunden, or model lessons, given by 
the candidates, is searching. The candidate who gave 
the lesson opens the discussion with a statement of his 
plan and a critical estimate of his own effort. This criti- 
cism is followed by that of the referent, co-referent, and 
other members. All are unsparing. One sometimes 
wonders whether they are meant to be as sharp as they 
sound to American ears. The candidate criticized has the 
right to reply at any time, to explain a situation, or to 
give his reasons for pursuing or attempting a certain plan. 
The director closes the discussion, emphasizing points 
stated by others or presenting new ones as he may choose. 

The theory of pedagogy receives a fair share of con- 
sideration. At almost every meeting of the seminar an 
assignment of literature is made, to be reported upon at 
the next meeting. For this purpose a referent and a 
co-referent are named; the former to make the report th^ 
latter to look out for omissior.s or misinterpretatio" s- 
These reports are not wiitten in full, but are made ^^- 
hand from notes t-^len in the reading. There is then '^^- 
eral discussion of the subject matter under the lead -^^^P 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 141 

of the director. The assignment for reading is not large, 
perhaps covering fifteen pages as an average. A certain 
fundamental knowledge of psychology and the history 
of pedagogy, especially of modern pedagogical theories, is 
assumed, and the material is taken almost entirely from 
the field of practical pedogogy. The principal works 
read were Praktische Padagogik, by A. Matthias ; Die 
allgemeinen Bestimmungen fur Volksschulen, by Forster ; 
Didaktik als Bildungslehre and P ddagogische Vortrdge uber 
die Hebung der geistigen Tdtigkeit, by Otto Willmann. 
Reference was also made to Handhuch der praktischen 
Padagogik, by H. Schiller ; to Zur Behandlung der 
Sagengeschichte, by Frick; to Ideale und Proteste, by 
Schrader ; to Uber den deutschen Unterricht, by Lehmann; 
to several monographs, and to various articles in the 
educational magazines. Representative topics discussed 
were : the personality of the teacher in its relation to 
method ; the art of questioning and the different kinds 
of questions ; the principle of apperception ; the Herbar- 
tian steps in teaching ; pedagogical tact ; interest ; asso- 
ciation between parents and teachers ; effort or attain- 
ment as a basis for pupils' reports ; correlation of subject 
matter ; Ziller's recapitulation theory ; selected topics in 
the history of modern pedagogy. 

Towards the middle of the Seminarjahr a topic is as- 
signed to each member of the seminar, upon which he is 
to write an essay for presentation to the director near the 



142 TRAINING OP TEACHERS POR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

close of the year. The candidates are asked to suggest 
subjects in which they are interested, and, if they are suit- 
able, personal preferences are regarded in the assignment. 
The subjects for these essays are usually chosen from the 
field of practical pedagogy, and the papers are judged on 
the basis of individual independence of thought and 
maturity of judgment concerning the practical work of the 
school. Pure theory is to be avoided. This year's can- 
didates will choose their subjects from the following list 
submitted by the director : — 

Significance of the type in religious and historical 
instruction. 

Apperception in instruction in the higher schools. 

Pronunciation, reading, the lecture. 

Memorizing in mathematical instruction. 

How are lessons in poetry to be treated in order that the 
imagination and the feelings may be aroused ? 

Classroom instruction and home work in their mutual 
relations. 

The use of praise and blame in instruction. 

Different kinds of concentration. 

The method of grouping in reviews. 

What is meant by educative instruction and how is it 
attained ? 

Historical and geographical instruction of the middle 
classes in their mutual relations. 

The use of drawing in different departments. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 43 

Stimulation and cultivation of the sense of honor. 

Problems in the method of instruction in arithmetic. 

Compulsion and freedom in instruction in the higher 
schools. 

Relation of natural science instruction to other sub- 
jects. 

How stimulate self-activity in pupils in the lower 
classes ? 

What points in the propositions for reform made by 
Perthes are to be applied in instruction in Latin ? 

The library is an important factor in the work of the 
seminar. In Halle, the university library is available for 
the use of candidates. In addition to this, and of more 
general use, is the library belonging to the seminar itself. 
This is not large, but it is well selected and very valuable 
for the purpose which it is designed to serve. It is com- 
posed of sample schoolbooks, monographs, and books of 
general pedagogy, the history of pedagogy, psychology, 
school systems, methods of teaching particular subjects 
and special educational topics. Several of the best edu- 
cational journals, both German and foreign, are at hand. 
The custodian is chosen from among the candidates, and 
the members of the seminar have ready access to books 
and magazines. 

Other Modern Seminars. — The work done in the 
gymnasial seminar of the Franckesche Stiftungen may be 
taken as typical of the best that is done in the higher 



144 TEAINING OE TEACHERS EOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

school seminars of Germany. Reports from other semi- 
nars indicate that differences in procedure are those 
due to differences in the personality and training of the 
directors, and in local conditions and facilities. A few 
directors admit the purely academic discussion of subject 
matter, but this policy has a small following. Some em- 
phasize more the practical, others the theoretical side of 
pedagogical study. The spirit of the work as a whole 
depends almost entirely upon the director. In some cases 
the letter of the law is closely followed and candidates are 
admitted to teaching only after the first quarter, and then 
with a small number of hours. In other cases they are 
given from eight to twelve hours per week from the begin- 
ning. In still other instances they are given the full 
number of hours, twenty-four per week, at once. They 
are then practically independent from the start, for this 
state of affairs indicates a scarcity of teachers in the 
school, and no one has time to supervise their work care- 
fully. Candidates sometimes complain because they are 
required to teach two years on probation, while at the 
same time they receive little assistance from their superi- 
ors. This rare condition, however, is due to unfortunate 
circumstances, and it is regretted by every one. 

THE PROBEJAER 

The Probejahr has a history of its own, as shown in the 
preceding chapter, and it must be ranked as a separate 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 145 

institution although it is intimately connected with the 
Seminarjahr. Before the establishment of the latter in 
1890, it was scarcely more than a year of trial service with 
little supervisory assistance. Since the founding of the 
Seminarjahr^ it remains a year of trial service, but the 
candidate receives more systematic attention from the 
school director or his representative, and he is required to 
submit a written report in which he criticizes his year's 
work. The candidate is under the immediate control of 
the director, who reports to the provincial school board 
concerning the character of his work. The Prohejahr is 
usually spent in a school to which no seminar is attached. 
In the Latina {Gymnasium) and Oherrealschide of the 
Franckesche Stiftungen there were, however, during the 
writer's sojourn there, three candidates serving their 
Prohejahr. The training of these men and the teaching 
actually done by them is briefly indicated as follows: 
Number i passed his Seminarjahr in another seminar. 
He was teaching in the Oherrealschule, mathematics sixteen 
hours, physics two, and chemistry four, a total of twenty- 
two hours; and for this service he received a salary of $430. 
Number 2 passed his Seminarjahr in another seminar. 
His principal subjects are Greek, Latin, and history. He 
was teaching in the Latina: Greek, six hours; Latin, eight; 
history, two; German, five; religion, two; geography, one; 
a total of twenty-four'hours. He had the rank of scien- 
tific assistant and served as assistant (Erzieher) in one 



146 TRAINING OF TEACHERS POR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

of the boarding homes. For this service he received 
a salary of $430 per year. His Prohejahr was interrupted 
by the year of military service beginning October, 1909. 
Number 3, doctor of philosophy, passed his Seminarjahr 
in the seminarium prceceptorum, and was serving his 
Prohejahr in the Latina. He taught mathematics eight 
hours and natural science six hours, receiving pay for 
five hours. He was also assistant {Erzieher) in a board- 
ing home. His Prohejahr was also interrupted by the 
year of military service, but he expected to return to the 
school in October, 19 10, for the second semester. 

The candidate in the Prohejahr is not required to attend 
the meetings of the seminar or to do any particular read- 
ing, although he is supposed to make diligent use of his 
spare time for the latter purpose. His teaching receives 
less supervision than that of the candidate in the Seminar- 
jahr, but he is still officially under the care of the director 
of the school. At the close of the year he is expected to 
make a report to the director concerning his work. This 
report may also contain a statement of his experience and 
impressions pedagogically considered. Should the direc- 
tor deem his work unsatisfactory, he so reports to his 
superior authority, the provincial school board {Pro- 
vincial SchulkoUegium). Towards the close of the year 
a special school inspector also visits the classes of the 
candidate and reports to the school board. Should the 
decision of the SchulkoUegium, the final authority, be 



INSTITUTIONS FOE. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 147 

against him, the candidate is either required to serve 
a second Prohejahr (or at least a semester) in another 
school, or he is finally refused a certificate as teacher in 
the higher schools. If the reports of the director and 
inspector are favorable, he will be certificated by state 
authority as higher school teacher {Oberlehrer) , and he 
will then be ready for permanent appointment. A few 
years ago such persons had to wait from two to eight 
years for positions ; but, as teachers for the higher schools 
are now scarce in Germany, the new teacher is likely to be 
appointed at once. 



CHAPTER IV 

Opinion and Practice 

A CENTURY of experience since the Prussian Edict of 
1810 has not served to bring entire unanimity of either 
opinion or practice in all points connected with the train- 
ing of teachers for the higher schools of Germany. A few 
things have been settled and universally accepted. The 
candidate must have completed his triennium at the uni- 
versity ; he must pass a state examination in certain sub- 
jects in which every teacher should be reasonably profi- 
cient, and in certain other subjects, of his own choosing, 
which he desires to teach ; and he must spend at least 
one year teaching on trial before he is officially admitted 
to the ranks of the professional teacher. Other points, 
however, remain somewhat unsettled, and, where they are 
Involved, there is difference of practice. There is not yet 
entire agreement concerning the study of education as a 
university subject ; concerning the value of the university 
pedagogical seminar as a means of training teachers for 
the higher schools ; concerning the efficiency of the gj'^m- 
nasial seminar for the same purpose ; and concerning the 
period of time that is necessary for the practical training. 

148 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 149 

A brief statement concerning opinion and practice with 
reference to these points follows. 

The Study of Education occupies a somewhat uncertain 
position in German universities. It has not yet com- 
mended itself everj^where as worthy of recognition in a 
separate department. Perhaps the most interesting and 
surprising illustration of this fact is found in the decision, 
in 1908, of the universities of Munich, Wiirzburg, and 
Erlangen not to establish chairs of education or practice 
schools. The reasons for the decision given by the first 
two universities named are as follows : — 

"i. Pedagogy as an isolated science is able to produce no 
creative, scientific work. 

"2. Pedagogy as universal didactic presupposes in its repre- 
sentative universal wisdom. Since such a thing does not exist, 
an entire pedagogical faculty must be required for each university. 
Only under this presupposition does a special didactic of each sub- 
ject have value. 

"3, An introduction into the psychological principles of peda- 
gogy can be given only by a representative of systematic philos- 
ophy who is particularly familiar with the methods of experimen- 
tal psychology. 

"4. For the pedagogical training of theological students exist- 
ing institutions are sufficient. 

"5. The practical training of future teachers for the middle 
schools (Qberlehrer) belongs to the pedagogical-didactical seminars 
of the middle schools (Gymnasien, etc.), that of the teachers for 
the Volksschulen to the teachers' seminars {Lehrer seminar e) ; the 
university has for its purpose the advancement of the scientific and 
purely cultural training of students. 



150 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"6. The union of practice schools with the universities is 
opposed not only by considerations of principle, but by great 
practical difficulties as regards the personnel of teachers, the num- 
ber of pupils, and local relations." '■ 

The university of Erlangen voted against the practice 
school, but recommended the appointment of a new pro- 
fessor of philosophy who should give lectures on pedagogy. 

In those universities in which the study of education in 
some form has already been admitted, there remains 
considerable difference of opinion as to what work and 
how much can be profitably offered. Many who believe 
that the university should present the theoretical side of 
pedagogical training [are opposed to the practical semi- 
nar or practice school, as a feature of university work. 
There are relatively few chairs of pedagogy. The courses 
in education are listed under philosophy in the official 
announcements, and most of them are given by professors 
of philosophy and psychology, who announce courses in 
education in alternate semesters or years. 

The courses in education offered in the universities of 
Germany from Easter, 1907, to Easter, 19 10 are indicated 
in the following list. The material for the first four semes- 
ters was collected by Mr. W. Donath, a student in the 
university of Jena, and it appeared in the magazine, Aus 
dem Padagogischen Universitdts-Seminar zu Jena, edited 
by Professor William Rein. The writer is under obliga- 

* Aus dem Padagogischen Universitats-Seminar zu Jena, Heft XIII, 2. 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 151 

tions to both Mr. Donath and Professor Rein for the privi- 
lege of using this material. The data for the last two 
semesters was taken from the official lecture announce- 
ments issued by the different universities. 

LIST OF COURSES^ 

BERLIN 

SS '07 Psychology. Ach (d) : Introduction to psych. (2) 
Ethics. Riehl: Ethics I & II (i) 

Simmel (a.p.) : Ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Munch: Ped. theories from Schleiermacher to 
the present (2) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Pedagogy. Paulsen: Ped. and didactics (4) 

Munch: The educational office (2) ; Ped. 
conference * 
SS '08 Psychology. Paulsen: Psych, the foundation of the spir- 
itual sciences (4) 
Simmel (a.p.) : OutKnes of psych. (2) 
Stumpf: Psych, institute * 
Ethics. Misch (d) : The principal problems of philosophy 
with special reference to individual and social 
ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Miinch : Theory and art of language instruction (2) 

^ The rank of the lecturer has been indicated as far as it was pos- 
sible to determine it from the announcement. If there are no letters 
after his name, he may be assumed to be a full professor {ordenUicher 
Professor) ; the letters (a.p.) indicate the rank of associate or assistant 
professor {ausserordentUcher Professor) ; the letter (d) indicates private 
lecturer {privat Dozent). SS '07 indicates summer semester, 1907 ; WS 
'07-' 08, winter semester, 1907-1908. Courses marked with an asterisk 
(*) are supposed to have been offered in each of the six semesters. 

Figures in parenthesis following the courses indicate the number of 
hours per week devoted to the work. 



152 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

WS 'o8-'og Psychology. Stumpf: Psych, with demonstrations (4) 
Ethics. Simmel (a.p.) : Ethics and problems in social philos- 
ophy (2) 
Pedagogy. Munch: Ped. theory (2) ; Scientific ped. exer- 
cises (l) =g;!i 
SS '09 Psychology. Simmel (a.p.) : General psych. (2) 

Stumpf: Theoretical exercises in psych, in- 
stitute (i) ; Experimental exercises in 
psych, institute (2) 
Vierkandt (d) : The soul life of primeval 
races (3) ; Exercises in race psych. (i3^^) 
Ethics. Simmel (a.p.) : Exercises in moral science 
Pedagogy. Miinch: Ped. theories from Plato to Rousseau (2) ; 
Scientific ped. exercises (i) 
WS 'oQ-'io Psychology. Stumpf: Psych, with demonstrations 

(4) ; Theoretical exercises in psych, 
institute (i) 
Stumpf and Rupp (d) : Psych, insti- 
tute (s) 
Dessoir (a.p.) : General psych. (2) 
Rupp (d) : Experimental exercises in 

psych, institute (4) 
Frischeisen-Kohler (d) : The psych, 
foundations of education (i) 
Ethics. Vierkandt (d) : Ethics (2) 

Simmel (a.p.) : Kant's ethics (i) 
Groethuysen (d) : Problems of modern culture (2) ; 
The law of nature and the historical school (i) 
Pedagogy. Miinch: The theory of instruction (2) : Scientific 
ped. exercises (2) 
Rupp (d) : Discussion of exper. ped. in connec- 
tion with lectures (i) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 53 

BONN 

SS '07 Psychology. Erdmann : Psych. (4) 

Berber tz (d) : Experimental psych, of sight 
perception, especially in reading (i) 
Pedagogy. Wentscher (a.p.) : Ped. (2) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Dyroff: Psych. (4) 

Becker (d) : Physiological psych, (i) j 
Feeling and will (2) 
Pedagogy. Dyroff: History of ped. (3) 

Jdger: Gymnasial ped. II (2) 
SS '08 Psychology. Erdmann: Psych. (4) 

Ethics. Becker (d) : Principal problems in ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Dyrof: Seminar in Herbart 
WS 'oB-'og Psychology. Dyroff: Psych. (4) 

Wentscker (a.p.) : General psych. (4) 
Erdmann: Exercises in the psych, of 
speech 
Pedagogy. Erdmann: History of ped. (3) 
Jdger: G3Tnnasial ped. II (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Erdmann: Psych. (4) : Exper. psych, exer- 
cises in reading (i) 
Verweyen (d) : Exercises in the psych, of 
thinking (i) 
Pedagogy. Wentscker (a.p.) : Ped. (2) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Dyroff: Psych. (4) 

Becker (d) : The psych, of will (i) 
Kiilpe: Psych, conference (2) ; Exper. 
psych. (6) 
Ethics. Hammacher (d) : Exercises in Compte's sociology (i) 

BRESLAU 

SS '07 Psychology. Stern (d) : Child psych, and pedagogy (3) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Baumgartner: Psychology (4) 
Stern (d) : Psychology (4) 



154 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

SS '08 Psychology. Stern (d) : Applied psychology (i) 
Ethics. Stern (d) : Introduction to ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Stern (d) : History of ped. to the present (2) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Stern (a.p.) : Psych. (4) ; Exercises in 

child psych, and exper. ped. 
SS '09 Psychology. Baumgartner : Psychology (4) 

Stern (a.p.) : Psych, of adolescence and its 
application to pedagogy (2) ; Psych, semi- 
nar (2) 
Ethics. Kabitz (d) : Fundamental questions of ethics (2) ; 
Exercises in Kant's ethical writings (i3^) 
WS 'o9~'io Psychology. Stern (a.p.) : Psychology (4) ; Exercises 

in the psych, of adolescence in psych, 
seminar (i3^) 
Pedagogy. Kabitz (d) : History of pedagogy in modern times 
(2) ; Exercises in theoretical pedagogy (i^) 

ERLANGEN 

SS '07 Psychology. Hensel: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Leser (d) : Prominent educators of modern times 
and their phil. and ped. views (2) 
WS '07-08 Pedagogy. Hensel: Fichte (i) 
SS '08 Psychology. Leser (d) : Psychology (4) 
Ethics. Hensel: Ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Leser (d) : Pestalozzi and Herbart (2) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Pedagogy. Leser (d) : Plato (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Hensel : Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Leser (d) : Views of life of great educators of 
modern times (2) 
WS 'o9-'io Pedagogy. Leser (a.p.) : Pestalozzi and Herbart, an 
introd. to the problems of ped. (2) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 155 

FREIBURG 

SS '07 Psychology. Uebinger: Psychology (4) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Cohn (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 
Rickert: Psych, laboratory* 
Ethics. Rickert: Ethics as social philosophy (i) 
SS '08 Psychology. Uebinger: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Cohn: Psych, pedagogy (2) 
WS 'oS-'op Psychology. Cohn: Psychology (4) 

Uebinger: The phil. letters of J. E. Erd- 
mann (i) 
Pedagogy. Cohn: The ends of education and instruction (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Uebinger : Psychology (4) 

Bumke (d) : Physiological psych, (i) 
Cohn (a.p.) : Psych, essays, by appointment 
Pedagogy. Uebinger: History of pedagogy (2) 
WS 'og-'io Psychology. Bumke (d) : Physiological psych, (i) 

Cohn (a.p.) : Psychology, by appoint- 
ment 
Pedagogy, Cohn (a.p.) : The higher school systems of the 
present (2) 
Supple (d) : School hygiene (i) 

GIESSEN 

SS '07 Psychology. Groos: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Siebeck: Principles of didactics and theory of 
method in instruction (2) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Groos: Feehng and will in the child (i) 
Kinkel: The idea and the life of the 
human soul 
Pedagogy. Siebeck : History of education and pedagogy since 
the Middle Ages (3) 
SS '08 Pedagogy. Groos: Outlines of pedagogy (2) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Groos: Psychology (9) 



156 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy. Sieheck : Outlines of didactics and methodology 
of instruction (2) 
SS '09 Psychology, Messer (a.p.) : Exercises in exper. psych. 
Pedagogy. Sieheck : History of education and pedagogy since 
the age of Humanism (3) ; The nature, origin, 
and development of speech (2) 
Groos: Pestalozzi, in philosophical seminar (i) 
WS 'oQ-'io Psychology. Messer (a.p.) : Psych, of will (i) ; In- 
troduction to scientific works in the 
sphere of psych, and ped. (by appoint- 
ment) 
Ethics. Weidenhach (d) : Ethics 
Pedagogy. Groos: Outlines of ped. (2) 

Messer (a.p.) : Lectures on Natorp's social ped. 
(iH) 

GOTTINGEN 

SS '07 Psychology. Goedeckemeyer : Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Baumann: History of ped. including curricula 
and lessons in the higher schools (3) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Milller: Psychology (4) 
SS '08 Psychology. Baumann: OutUnes of ped. psych. (2) 

Mailer: Mem.ory and the voluntary direc- 
tion of thought (4) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Milller: Psychology (4) 

Ethics. Husserl: Fundamental problems in ethics (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Milller: Psycho-physical method (2) ; Exper. 
psych. 
Pedagogy. Baumann: History of ped. (2). 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Miiller: Psychology (4) ; Exper. psych. 
Milller and Katz (d) : Exper. psych, (i) 
Ethics. Nelson (d) : Principles of ethics (4) 
Pedagogy. Husserl: General history of pedagogy (2) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 157 

GREIPSWALD 

SS '07 Psychology. Schuppe: Psychology (3) 

Pedagogy. Rehmke: History of ped. (3) ; Systems of ped. 

(3) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Nothing offered 

SS '08 Psychology. Rehmke: Psychology (3); The freedom of 
the will (2) 
Ethics and Pedagogy. Schuppe: Outlines of ethics and ped. 

(3) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Nothing oflfered. 
SS '09 Psychology. Schuppe: Psychology (3) 

Schunkel (a.p.) : History of psych. (2) 
Pedagogy. Rehmke: History and systems of ped. (3) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Schmekel (a.p.) : Methods and results 

of exper. psych. (2) 

HALLE 

SS '07 Psychology. Ebbinghaus: Experimental psychology (2) 

Uphues (a.p.) : General and ped. psych. (2) 
Schwarz (d) : General psychology (i) 
Pedagogy. Fries: The Prussian educational system in its 
historical development (i) 
Schwarz (d) : General pedagogy with reference 
to experimental didactics (3) 
WS '07-08 Psychology. Busse : Psychology (4) 

Schwarz (d) : Introduction to exper. 
psych. (2) 
Pedagogy. Fries: History of pedagogy since the Middle 
Ages (2) ; Pedagogical exercises (i)* 
SS '08 Psychology. Uphues (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 

Aall (d) : Introduction to exper. psych. (2) 
Pedagogy. Fries: Selected chapters in general didactics (i) 
Aall (d) : Experimental pedagogy (2) 



158 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Ehbinghaus: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Fries: History of ped. since the Middle Ages (i) 
Schwarz (d) : Experimental pedagogy (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Uphues: Psychology (4) 

Ehbinghaus: Experimental psychology (2) 
Pedagogy. Fries: The Prussian educational system in its 
historical development (i) ; Ped. exercises (i) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Meumann: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Meumann: Introduction to pedagogy (2) 

Fries: History of ped. since the Middle Ages (2) ; 
Pedagogical exercises (i) 

HEIDELBERG 

SS '07 Pedagogy. Uhlig: The most important disputed questions 
of the present concerning the organization 
and administration of instruction in the 
higher schools (2) ; Extracts from the ped. 
writings of Herbart (i) ; Lectures on parts of 
pedagogical poems of Lucretius and Ovid (i) 
Boeckel (Gymnasial Director) : Practical ped. 
Exercises (2) * 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Elsenhaus (d) : Psychology (4) 
Ethics. Windelband: Ethics (4) 

Pedagogy. Uhlig: History of educ, instruction, and ped. 
theories (2) ; Lectures on the pedagogical 
classics (i) 
SS '08 Pedagogy. Uhlig: The most important disputed ques- 
tions of the present concerning the organiza- 
tion and administration of instruction in the 
higher schools (i) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Pedagogy. Uhlig: History of educ, instruction, and 
ped. theories (2) ; Herbart's outhne 
of ped. lectures and E. v. Sallwiirk's 
Normalstufen 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 59 

SS '09 Ethics. TroeUsch: Ethics (5) 

Pedagogy, Uhlig: The most important disputed questions 

of the present concerning the organization and 

administration of instruction in the higher 

schools (2) 

WS 'og-'io Pedagogy. Uhlig: Ped. Classics, Rousseau and Pes- 

talozzi (i) 

JENA 

SS '07 Ethics. Rein: OutUnes of ethics (2) 

Pedagogy. Rein: General didactics (2); Ped. seminar with 
practical exercises (3) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Eucken: Psychology (3) 

Pedagogy. Rein: Special didactics (3) ; Foreign school sys- 
tems (i); Ped. seminar (3) 
SS '08 Psychology. Linke (d) : Psychology (3) 
Ethics. Eucken: Ethics (2) 

Pedagogy. Rein: Special didactics (2); Life and teaching 
of Herbart; Ped. seminar (3) 
WS 'oS-'og Psychology. Liebmann: Psychology (3) 
Ethics. Rein: Outlines of ethics (2) 

Pedagogy. Rein: General pedagogy (i) ; Ped. seminar (3) 
Eucken: History of modern pedagogy (i) 
SS '09 Psychology. Rein: Elements of empirical psych. (2) 

Linke (d) : Applied psych. (2) ; Attention (i) 
Pedagogy. Rein: General didactics (2) ; Ped. seminar (3) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology, Eucken: Psychology (2) 

Strohmayer (d) : Neurological diagnosis', 
with practical exercises (i) ; Discov- 
ery and treatment of mental weak- 
ness in youth, for physicians and 
teachers 
Ethics. Linke (d) : Principal problems of ethics and juris- 
prudence (2) 



l6o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy. Rein: Herbart(2); Special didactics (3) ; Ped. 
seminar (3) 

KIEL 

SS '07 Ethics. Tonnies (d) : Sociology and ethics of family life (i) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Martins: Psychology (4) ; Psych, sem- 
inar (2) 
SS '08 Nothing offered 
WS 'oS-'oQ Psychology. Deussen: Psychology and systems of 

phil. (4) 
SS '09 Psychology. Martins: Psych, seminar (2) 
WS '09-10 Psychology. Martins: Psychology (4); Psych, semi- 
nar (2) 

KONIGSBERG 

SS '07 Psychology. Ach: Exper. psych, works, in seminar * 

Ethics. Kowalewsky (d) : Fundamental problems in ethics (i) 
WS '07-08 Psychology. Ach: Child psych, and exper. pedagogy 

(i) 
SS '08 Psychology. Ach: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Walter: History and outlines of pedagogy (4) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Pedagogy. Walter: History and outHnes of peda- 
gogy (4) 
SS '09 Psychology. Ach: Introduction to exper. psych, (iH) ; 
Exper. psych. (6) 
Eallerworden (d) : Chapters in appUed psych. 

(i) 
Ethics. Kowalewsky (d) : Ethics (2) 
. Pedagogy. Goedeckemeyer : History and outlines of peda- 
gogy (4) 
WS 'og-'io Psychology. Ach: Psych. (4) ; Exper. psych, (by 

appointment) 
Eallerworden (d) : Shakespeare's dra- 
matic art as a subject for applied 
psych. (2) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE l6l 

LEIPSIC 

SS '07 Psychology. Wundt: Psychology (4) ; Psych, Seminar 
Wirth (a.p.) : Psych, of vision (2) 
Ethics. Barth (a.p.) : Introduction to moral philosophy (i^) 
Pedagogy. Volkelt: History of pedagogy I, Middle Ages to 
Rousseau (4) ; Phil.-ped. seminar 
Jungmann: Introduction to pedagogy (2) ; 
Practical pedagogical seminar 
WS.'o7-'o8 Psychology. Brahn (d) : Psychology (4) ; Child psych. 

(2) ; Sense perception (i) 
Wundt: Psych, seminar 
Ethics. Heinze: Ethics and outUnes of jurisprudence 
Pedagogy. Volkelt: History of pedagogy, II, Rousseau to 
Herbart (3) ; Phil.-ped seminar 
Jungmann: History of higher instruction from 
the Reformation to the present (2) ; Prac- 
ped. seminar. 
Barth (a.p.) : Essentials in education and the 
theory of instruction on the basis of the psy- 
chology of the present (2) ; Ped. Society 
SS '08 Psychology. Wundt: Psychology (4) : Psych, seminar 
Ethics. Richter (d): Critical history of ethics 

Lipps (d) : Philosophical ethics (2) 
Pedagogy, Volkelt: Pedagogy in the school of Herbart (i) ; 
Phil.-ped. seminar 
Jungmann: Introduction to ped. (2) ; Practical- 
ped. seminar 
WS '08-09 Psychology. Wirth (d) : Experimental analysis of 

attention (2) 
Krueger (d) : Comparative psych, of 

primeval races 
Lipps (d) : Outlines and essentials of 

psych. (3) 
Wundt: Psych, seminar. 



1 62 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy. Volkelt: General pedagogy (3) ; Phil.-ped. semi- 
nar 
Barth (a.p.) : History of pedagogy from the 
Renaissance to the Enlightenment (2) ; Ped. 
Society 
Jungmann: History of higher education since the 
Reformation (2); Interpretation of Latin 
sources of pedagogy (i) 
SS '09 Psychology. Wundt: Psychology (4) ; Psych, seminar 
Wundt, Wirth (a.p.), and Klemm (d) : Psych. 

laboratory (29) 
Wirth (a.p.) : Theory of psych, method (2) 
Krueger (d) : Psych, and ethics of economical 

living (2) 
Brahn (d) : Child psych, and exper. peda- 
gogy (2) 
Pedagogy. Volkelt: History of pedagogy (4) ; Phil.-ped. 
seminar, Goethe's views of life 
Jungmann: Didactics of the higher schools (2); 

Practical-ped. seminar 
Rietschel: History of pedagogy. 
WS 'o9-'io Psychology. Wundt and Wirth (a.p.) : Psych, labora- 
tory (7) 
Wirth (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 
Salow ( ?) : Introductory course in ex- 
per. psych. (2) 
Brahn (d) : Outhnes of psychology (iH) 
Klemm (d) : History of modern psych. 
(2) 
Ethics. Barth: History and systems of ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Volkelt: History of ped. from Rousseau to Her- 
bart (3) ; Phil.-ped. seminar, Jean Paul's 
Levana and extracts from the writings of W. v. 
Humboldt 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 63 

Barth (a.p.) : Essentials of the theory of educa- 
tion and instruction on the basis of modern 
psych. (2) 

Jungmann (a.p.) : Introduction to pedagogy (2) ; 
Practical-ped. seminar 

Hofmann (Theology) : Pedagogy and its history 
(4) ; Pedagogical seminar (i) 

Lange (Medicine) : School hygiene and school 
disease (2) 

MARBURG 

SS '07 Psychology. Menzner (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Ethics. Menzner (a.p.) : Ethics (2) 

Pedagogy. Natorp: History of pedagogy since the Renais- 
sance (3) ; Phil. ped. seminar * 
SS '08 Ethics. Cohen: Ethics and jurisprudence (4) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Cohen: Psych, as an encyclopedia of 

philosophy (4) 
Pedagogy. Natorp: General pedagogy (3) 
SS '09 Psychology. Schwarz: Psych, of mental labor and endow- 
ment, with experiments (i) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Natorp: General psych. (3) ; Psych. 

exercises (2) 
Schwarz: Introduction to exper. psych. 
(2) 
Pedagogy. Natorp: History of pedagogy since the beginning 
of modern times (3) ; Herbart's philosophy 
and ped. (2) 

MUNICH 

SS '07 Psychology. Pfdnder (d) : OutUnes of psychology (4) 

Schneider (d) : Empirical psychology (4) 
Ethics. Scheler (d) : Fundamental questions in ethics (3) 



164 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy. Rehm: History of pedagogical theories from the 
Enlightenment to the present (4) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Lipps: Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Pfdnder (d) : Outlines of the theory of education 
and instruction on psychological principles (4) 
SS '08 Psychology. Schneider (a.p.) : Empirical psych. (4) 
V. Asler (d) : Outlines of psych. (4) 
Lipps: Psych, seminar * 
Ethics. Lipps: Ethics and phil. principles of the theory of 

law and society (4) 
Pedagogy. Rehm: Theory of pedagogy and didactics for 
higher schools (4) 
Fischer (d) : Ped. exercises * 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Lipps: Psychology I (5) 

Pedagogy. Pfdnder (d) : Outlines of the theory of education 
and instruction on psych, principles (4) 
SS '09 Psychology. Schneider (a.p.) : Psych, with special refer- 
ence to ped. questions involved (4) 
V. Asler (d) : Psych. (4) ; Psych, exercises (i) 
Fischer (d) : Psych, exercises (i3^) 
Burger (d) : Art and race psych. (2) 
Ranke: Anthropological psych. (4) 
Ethics. Geiger (d) : Introduction to ethical problems (2) 

Fischer (d) : Introduction to problems of sociology 

(3) 
Pedagogy. Rehm: History of ped. theories (4) 

Jordan: Fundamental questions in the method 
of modern language instruction (i) 
WS 'og-'io Psychology. Lipps: General psych. (5) ; Psych. 

seminar (ij^) 
Fischer (d) : Psych, exercises (iH) 
Meyer (d) : Psych, of Aristotle (i) 
Ethics. Scheler (d) : Fundamental problems of ethics (4) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 165 



MUNSTER 

SS '07 Psychology. Meumann: Empirical psychology (4) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Geyser (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 

Pedagogy. Meumann: General ped. on psych, and exper. 
principles (2) 
SS '08 Psychology. Meumann: Introduction to exper. psych. 

and ped. (2) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Meumann: Introduction to exper. psych. 

and ped. (2) 
Geyser (a.p.) : Psychology (4) 
Ethics. Koppelmann (d) : The most important problems 
of ethics and jurisprudence 
SS '09 Psychology. Meumann: Psych, exercises 

Pedagogy. Koppelmann (d) : Gymnasial pedagogy and the 
teacher's office (2) 
WS 'oQ-'io Psychology. Geyser (a.p.) : Psychology (4) ; Discus- 
sion of psych, questions (i) 
Pedagogy. Cauer: OutUnes and selected chapters in didac- 
tics (2) 

ROSTOCK 

SS '07 Ethics. Erhardt: Ethics (2) 

WS 'o7-'o8 Nothing offered 

SS '08 Psychology. Erhardt: Psychology (4) 

WS 'o8-'o9 Pedagogy. Erhardt: Pedagogy (2) 

SS '09 Ethics. Erhardt: Ethics (2) ; Exercises in the ethics of 

Ed. V. Hartmann (2) 
WS '09-' 10 Nothing offered 

STRASSBURG 

SS '07 Nothing offered 

WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Baeumker: Psychology (4) 
Ethics. Frhr. v.d. Pfordten (d) : Ethics (2) 



1 66 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

SS '08 Pedagogy. Ziegler: Pedagogy (2) 

WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Ziegler: Empirical psych. (4) 

Ethics. Ziegler: Ethics (2) 
SS '09 Psychology. Baeumker: Psych, exercises (2) 

Pedagogy. Ziegler: History of ped. (2) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Baeumker: Psychology (4) ; Introd. to 

exper. psych, (i) 
Ethics, v.d. Pfordten (d) : Ethics (2) 

Wundt (d) : History of Greek ethics (2) 

TUBINGEN 

SS '07 Nothing offered 

WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Maier: Psychology (4) 

Ethics. Maier: Ethics (4) 
SS '08 Psychology. S pitta: General psych. (4) 

Ethics. Adickes: The deterministic viewpoint and its con- 
sequences for rehgion, ethics, and pedagogy (i) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Adickes: Psychology (4) 

Ethics: S pitta: Philosophical ethics (4) 
SS '09 Psychology. S pitta : General psych. (4) 

Pedagogy. Schiele (d) : Church and school in the nineteenth 
century 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Maier: Psychology (4) 

Ethics. Adickes: Philosophical ethics and jurisprudence (4) ; 
Exercises in ethical questions (i) 

WiJRZBURG 

SS '07 Ethics. Scherer (d) : Ethics (4) 

Pedagogy. Boll: Theory and history of educ. and instruction 
from the eighteenth century to the present (4) 
WS 'o7-'o8 Psychology. Scherer (d) : Psychology (4) 

Buehler (d) : Psych, of speaking and 
reading (2) 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 67 

SS '08 Ethics. Scherer (d) : Ethics (4) 

Pedagogy. Buehler (d) : Exper. ped. (4) 
WS 'o8-'o9 Psychology. Kiilpe: Psychology (4) 

Scherer (d) : Psychology (4) 
Pedagogy. Stolzle: Logic and the theory of method (4) 
SS '09 Psychology. Kiilpe: Psych, of thought and feehng (2) ; 
Psych, exercises (2) 
Kiilpe and Buehler (d) : Exper. psych. (5) 
Buehler (d) : Child psychology (2) ; Introd. 
to exper. psych. (2) 
Ethics. Neudecker (d) : The trend of modern ethics (2) 
Pedagogy. Stahlin: History of ped. (4) 
WS '09-' 10 Psychology. Buehler (d) : Exper. psych. (2) 
Pedagogy. Buehler (d) : Exper. ped. (4) 

The University Pedagogical Seminar. — Notwithstand- 
ing the strong support given it by a few of the best-known 
leaders in educational thought, the university pedagogi- 
cal seminar, with practice school attached, has not found 
a permanent place in many institutions. The work of 
Herbart, Brzoska, Stoy, and Ziller has already been de- 
scribed. These men believed in a university seminar offer- 
ing opportunity for both theoretical and practical training 
and serving the double purpose of training teachers and 
developing pedagogical science, through carefully directed 
experimentation. By all of them the practice school was 
regarded as a necessity, and in their work (with the ex- 
ception of Brzoska, who was not able to secure one) it 
was the center of interest and effort. Leipsic and Jena 
are the only universities now maintaining practical peda- 



l68 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

gogical seminars with an opportunity for practice teach- 
ing by students in connection with their theoretical 
pedagogical study. At Leipsic the seminar stands in con- 
nection with the city Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 
which are only indirectly under the control of the univer- 
sity. At Jena only is there a practice school maintained 
entirely by the university. As the most prominent mod- 
ern advocate of the university pedagogical seminar with 
practice school attached, Professor William Rein may 
be permitted to speak. 

" The Significance of the Pedagogical Seminar of the University and 
Its Problem. — The pedagogical seminar of the university has a 
double task. On the one hand, it promotes the development of 
pedagogical science; on the other, the theoretical and practical 
training of educators who are ambitious for scientific knowledge. 
At first it seems impossible to reconcile these two demands. They 
are, however, inseparably Unked together. 

" I. First of aU it cannot be doubted that the universities , the 
highest centers of intellectual education belonging to a nation, 
should not ignore such an important matter as the education of 
the different classes of the people. If they do it, they estrange 
themselves from the life of the people and renounce their influence 
on large and important fields of public life. Both suffer under 
this neglect. The universities lose themselves in scientific research, 
and educational affairs are left to the pedagogy of the state or to 
laymen. However excellent the work of these may be, it is be- 
yond question that the far-reaching problems of education, so 
significant for the development of a people, can best be exam- 
ined and furthered where practical philosophy flourishes, and 
constantly considers the aim of all human life; where empirical 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 69 

psychology seeks to discover the motions and laws of individuality 
and the soul of the people, and where, finally, hygiene and physi- 
ology explain the conditions of bodily welfare. In close connection 
with such fundamental investigations, the study of pedagogy will 
undoubtedly prosper best, and progress in the science of pedagogy 
can be made most rapidly in the university. 

" Surely there the conditions are most favorable for introducing 
the future generations of educators into the scientific laboratory, 
and for laying a good foundation for a successful career. The 
necessary requirement for this is threefold : (i) A clear under- 
standing of the educational problems of society ; (2) a warm heart 
for youth, upon whom the future of the people rests; (3) strong 
and energetic participation in the education of the people. It is 
not difiicult to prove that these three requirements can best be 
fulfilled in a pedagogical seminar of the university which is con- 
nected with a practice school. A knowledge of the problems of 
education can best be obtained where scientific pedagogy is nat- 
urally cultivated, because it must continually stand in close rela- 
tion to practical philosophy, empirical psychology, and physiol- 
ogy. With this clearness of vision and sharpness of insight into 
educational problems must be connected a warm feeling for youth, 
their needs and their desires, as well as a strong will and abihty 
to realize the ideals of education. The foundation for these 
quahties can be laid, and existing talent can be trained, through 
practice in teaching, which is offered in the practice school of 
the seminar. In such a place therefore educators can be trained, 
who upon entering into our public school life carry along with 
them so much force and practical abiUty that they contribute 
effectively to the advancement of our people's education every- 
where. 

"2. In the pedagogical seminar of the university that has a prac- 
tice school, the relation between theory and practice can be shown. 
This is necessary for all progress. Theory separated from prac- 
tice is not sufficient, for it is a long and diffictdt way from knowl- 



lyo TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

edge to practice. The application of the theory must be well 
learned. In the pedagogical seminar the theoretical lectures and 
theses of the students can continually be supplemented, illus- 
trated, corrected, and vitalized through practical teaching in the 
practice school. An earnest interchange of theory and practice 
may, therefore, be introduced and continued, as it is necessary 
for the further development of pedagogical science and advan- 
tageous for the training of future educators. For educators are 
to be trained here, not merely teachers. Whoever has only the 
latter in mind does not need such means. He can renounce a 
more thorough philosophical training and concentrate the prepara- 
tion for the teaching profession upon the communication of good 
rules for the teaching of those subjects in which the candidate has 
passed his examination. Naturally the pedagogical seminar of 
the university is far from such a conception. 

"3. Students of different subjects work together in the pedagogi- 
cal seminar of the imiversity. This can but exercise a most bene- 
ficial influence in so far as the one-sidedness, which so easily conies 
through the study of subjects, is in part at least counterbalanced. 
The young men, according to Lessing, are led to look from one 
science into another, to understand the educational problem as 

part of a larger problem, and to value a single subject as an element 

\ 

of a larger organism. They are thus led through a more thorough 

knowledge of details up to a higher understanding, which is abso- 
lutely necessary for any truly productive work. 

"4. In the pedagogical seminar of the university not only 
teachers for gymnasia, but also teachers for all higher schools are 
trained, as well as teachers for normal schools and for Real- 
schulen. For where else should the normal school teachers 
especially receive their pedagogic training? At the same time 
the connection, the unity of the entire educational system is con- 
tinually emphasized as well as the correlation of the single parts. 
This certainly is better suited to a continual development than 
an artificial isolation of schools and teachers, even if the latter 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 171 

plan would better please the vanity of the different classes of 
teachers. 

"5. The chief problems of the seminar of the university are, 
therefore, to awaken enthusiasm concerning the education of 
the people in general, and to effect an understanding of the 
whole educational system. On this basis every individual should 
continually work and should get acquainted particularly with the 
special organism into which his profession will introduce him later. 
In a word, it is the chief task of the seminar of the university to 
lay the foundation which leads to the formation of pedagogical 
character. The true conception and the higher understanding 
of educational problems cannot come from the theoretical instruc- 
tion of the university alone, or from the study of a special science, 
but both come through practical work. In his intercourse with 
children the future teacher must control himself, and habituate 
himseK to order and to regular work ; he must understand clearly 
what is to be taught and must refrain from doing many things 
which otherwise self-interest might easily lead him to do. 
Furthermore, if we think of all the young men striving for a 
common end, and of the influence that they exercise, of the 
problems which are the same for them aU, of the ideal disposition 
which shows itself in frank criticism and in mutual cooperation, 
the seminar of the university can well be called an excellent school 
for the formation of character. Teachers thus trained carry their 
ideals out among the people and work with earnest zeal for the 
inspiration of society. 

" It is doubtless true, also, that the universities furnish the best 
opportunity to get acquainted with the biological bases of pedagogy 
and to study their points of contact with medicine so far as this 
is necessary for the teacher. Pedagogical biology, hygiene, and 
pathology can here be drawn into the range of pedagogical study, 
particularly if an educational institution can furnish the illustra- 
tive material, as is the case at Jena, where, on the Sophienhohe, 
an institution for mentally defective children has been erected. 



172 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"6. Finally the pedagogical seminar of the university is the best 
place for the further development of the science of pedagogy. 
While the schools of the state are dependent upon instructions 
from the state, so that there is no opportunity for experiments, the 
pedagogical seminar of the university with its practice school 
enjoys academic liberty. It has, therefore, a great advantage 
over the gymnasium and over the seminar for normal school 
teachers. For it can make different experiments, naturally not 
without well-defined plans and a certain object in view, but such 
experiments as have been well considered theoretically, such as 
changes in the curriculum, introduction of new means of illustra- 
tion, examination of new textbooks, psychological and physiolog- 
ical investigations, new methods of procedure in the general and 
special field of teaching, and so on. Whatever has stood the test of 
practical experience in those practice schools of scientific pedagogy 
can then safely be introduced into our public schools. In this way 
a healthy progress takes place in our science and consequently also 
in our school system. This same thought has been expressed by 
Kant, 'Experimental schools must be established before we can 
estabUsh standard schools.' (Erst muss man Experimentalschulen 
errichten, ehe man Normalschulen errichten kann.) Unfortunately 
the authorities have not Hstened sufficiently to this demand." ^ 

The Gymnasial Seminar is all but universal in Ger- 
many to-day as the institution in which teachers in the 
higher schools receive their special pedagogical training. 
In Prussia, where it prevails throughout, there are forty- 
nine seminars (1909) with a capacity of approximately 
three hundred candidates, the munber for each seminar 
being legally limited to six. A seminar may be moved or 
discontinued at any time at the option of the provincial 
* Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagokik, Heft VI, 532. 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 173 

school board. The qualifications of the director, the 
opportunities for teaching afforded by his school, and the 
general geographical position are the main factors in the 
location of a seminar. The number of seminars and 
the number of candidates admitted to them depend upon 
the demand for teachers. It is the purpose of the gov- 
ernment to maintain only enough seminars to supply 
the annual demand for teachers, which is not great. In 
Saxe- Weimar there is only one higher school seminar, 
that connected with the Gymnasium at Jena. It is con- 
ducted in practically the same manner as the Prussian 
seminars except that its members are also required to 
work in the university pedagogical seminar and its prac- 
tice school. In Saxony, also, there is but one higher 
school seminar, that which has been described as the prac- 
tical pedagogical seminar of the University of Leipsic. 
The dominating influence of Prussia in the German Em- 
pire exists in school affairs as in other things, and there 
seems to be a general movement among the German 
states to adopt the Prussian gymnasial seminar. 

Perhaps the most prominent modern supporters of the 
gymnasial seminar are Dr. Hermann Schiller, who, at the 
time of his death in 1902, was director of the Gymnasium 
in Giessen, director of the seminar connected with it, pro- 
fessor of pedagogy in the university, and a member of the 
Examination Commission for Prussia ; Dr. Otto Frick, who 
was director of the Franckesche Stijtungen and director 



174 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

of the seminar, the seminarium prceceptorum, from 1881 
till his death in 1892 ; and Dr. Wilhelm Fries, who has 
held the same position since 1892. Scarcely less earnest, 
however, has been the support of many others, — direc- 
tors of seminars, directors of higher schools, government 
school officials, and professors in the university who be- 
lieve that the practical training of teachers belongs in 
the gymnasial seminar rather than in the university. 

The points upon which there is general agreement 
among these men are as follows : i . The university can 
offer valuable training in theoretical pedagogy, especially 
in philosophy, ethics, logic, psychology, and the history of 
pedagogy. 2. The work in the theory of pedagogy that 
is practicable in the university is not sufficient, but should 
be supplemented by similar work in the gymnasial semi- 
nar in close connection with the actual work of the school. 

3. The spirit of the university is scientific rather than 
practical, and it is too far removed from the actual needs 
of the school to make successful practical training possible. 

4. Both the time and the interest of the university student 
are so occupied with the theoretical and scientific work 
of the university course that he cannot work very success- 
fully in the practical sphere of the school. 5. The diffi- 
culties which must always be encountered in establishing 
a practice school under the direction of the university 
are never fully overcome. 6. The candidate needs the 
completed university course as a basis for his practical 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 175 

training. 7. The candidate needs all of his time, strength, 
and interest free to devote to the consideration of the 
current problems of the school. 8. The higher school, 
under the management of a well-trained and efficient 
rector who is also director of the seminar, offers a larger 
and much more natural field for practice than can possibly 
be provided in any university seminar. 9. The gymna- 
sal seminar affords the candidate an opportunity to com- 
bine the study of pedagogical theory with actual practice 
under normal conditions and under the careful supervision 
of competent teachers and organizers. 

It seems worth while to quote the following extracts 
from the writings of Schiller, Frick, and Fries, as repre- 
sentative of the spirit and views of the supporters of the 
gymnasial seminar. 

"I hope the reader will have been convinced by this discussion 
that a seminar connected with a Gymnasium is in a position to 
instruct its members in the theory of pedagogy at least as well as 
a university seminar. Moreover, if the university has no practice 
school of its own that is a real school, it cannot compete at all in 
advantages with a good higher school. For everywhere in the 
school theory and practice go hand in hand, and the young teacher 
is continually in a position to see the practical form of instruction 
and education and to learn the theoretical foundation of method, 
or to observe theory in its practical appUcation. He has, moreover, 
the advantage, not to be lightly esteemed, of becoming acquainted 
with the real conditions in which he will sometime be placed, not 
ideal and artificial conditions which are scarcely ever realized in 
practical service." ^ 

^Schiller, H. S., Padagogische Seminarian, 123. 



176 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"It is to be hoped that the pedagogical seminars of the future 
will eflfect great improvement in our higher schools. There is 
now lacking in these schools a strong and sure pedagogical con- 
sciousness which the elementary schools have possessed for a long 
time, mainly on account of the work of the Volksschule seminars. 
In important and far-reaching questions concerning instruction 
and education accepted opinions are still totally wanting. Un- 
certainty and the lack of fixed fundamental principles which are 
to be attained only with the help of psychology and ethics, of 
sociology and history, are characteristic indications of a deficient 
general pedagogical consciousness. The work of the pedagogical 
seminars, with the help of pedagogical theory, must strive towards 
clearness and towards fixed points in pedagogical practice. We 
may expect that their united efforts wUl succeed in gradually 
freeing practice in the higher schools from the dominion of chance 
and routine, and in establishing straight lines where now only 
confused paths, crossing and recrossing, are to be found. Only 
in this case wUl they become real nurseries of strong and sure 
pedagogical knowledge and power ; only in this case can they avoid 
being a negligible quantity in the educational questions of the 
nation." ^ 

"There exists the question of the training of teachers for the 
higher schools, a question created by the crying needs in this sphere, 
which are clearly visible to every one who will look. Only recently 
was it claimed in a pedagogical magazine that the former custom, 
according to which every teacher was compelled to seek independ- 
ently the best methods through long years of individual experi- 
mentation, was the best. Such an expression merits considera- 
tion only as it confirms the actual condition of affairs. The young 
teacher who does not yet know how he should instruct under- 
takes, as a rule, the instruction of just those pupils who do not yet 
know how they should learn. He experiments with them and 

1 Schiller, H. S., Padagogische Seminarian, 168. 



OPINION AND PRACTICE I77 

also with the successive classes in turn, and it is sheer good luck 
if, unadvised and left to himself as he is, he does not follow the old 
way, even though he does it in honest effort. We conform to the 
recollections of our own schooltime, and, under totally changed 
conditions, we follow the example of this or that revered model 
among our own teachers, or we avoid the mistakes of others under 
whom we once suffered. So, at best, that which holds together 
the higher schools is tradition; in truth, chance, crude empiricism, 
experiment. The official regulations concerning the instruction 
of candidates in their Prohejahr by the directors, however judi- 
cious and well meaning they may be, remain mere paper, and they 
will always remain so. The experience which the writer has him- 
self had, that from none of the five directors under whose leader- 
ship he once worked, did he ever receive any instruction or even 
so much as a hint worth mentioning concerning his work, may be 
heard confirmed everywhere, not only by the older but by the 
younger colleagues. A director, especially in a large institution, 
is so occupied with the details of his work, particularly with the 
necessary httle things, that even where indolence has not yet won 
the mastery, leisure and. freedom of mind fail for concerning him- 
seK with the instruction of candidates as thoroughly as is now 
indispensable. That which suffers year after year in consequence 
is the priceless wealth of the nation, the youth of our higher classes 
of society." ^ 

"There is only one radical cure, — the estabhshment of practical 
seminars in connection with practice schools quite after the analogy 
of the seminars for teachers in the Volksschule. Without such 
practice schools they remain incomplete and unfruitful creations 
which are never vital and which, therefore, should not be called 
into existence at aU." ^ 

"Let the subject seminars of the university preserve their 
purely scientific character and devote themselves whoUy to the 

^ Frick, Otto, Das Seminarium Prseceptorum, 54. ^ Ibid., 56. 

N 



178 TRAINING OP TEACHERS POR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

high task of the scientific advancement and deepening of their 
members. Practical exercises in the future caUing of the teacher 
he outside of their sphere and would, even if they were attempted, 
place the peculiar purpose of such institutions in doubt. But 
just as truly let the opinion be once for all abandoned, that scien- 
tific abihty alone quaUfies one to undertake the work of instruc- 
tion and that consequently the quality of instruction improves 
as scientific abiUty rises. Certainly the teacher can and should 
exert an influence through the example of the ideal Hfe; and, 
moreover, this will be possible, especially in the case of older 
pupils, through devoted fulfillment of duty and through scientific 
attainments; but the pedagogical art is, nevertheless, much too 
difficult and important to be acquired by mere use or to be fol- 
lowed only incidentally. On the contrary, there is needed a thor- 
oughly thoughtful introduction to its laws, and, for this purpose, 
special institutions serving this particular end." ^ 

As representative of those who, while they recognize 
the value of the gymnasial seminar, are nevertheless dis- 
posed to criticize it, Fries cites the objections of Director 
Vogel as follows : — 

"In his essay Upon the Seminar Question, he censures chiefly 
a certain academic vanity of the candidates. He does not, indeed, 
deny the advantages of the existing seminar arrangements, but he 
raises serious doubts concerning: (i) The quarter year of visiting, 
which keeps the beginners too long in a state of mere receptivity ; 

(2) the requiring of a written lesson-plan for every class period; 

(3) the insufficient practical employment; (4) the disturbance 
of regular instruction, which is produced by the practice lessons; 
(5) the regulation that, at every lesson, the director or an author- 
ized teacher must be present ; for, on the one side, this is a burden 

^ Fries, Wilhelm, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fur das Lehramt, 113. 



OPINION AND PRACTICE 1 79 

to the teachers, and, on the other, it produces a lack of independ- 
ence in the candidates. The Probejahr, also, seems to him to be 
insufl&ciently fruitful, because it offers to the beginners scarcely 
any opportunity to strengthen and deepen their experience through 
further organized instruction. He proposes, therefore, to unite 
the seminar with a practice school placed at its service, such as exist 
in the case of the seminars for the teachers in the lower schools. 
The practice school should contain only the lower and middle 
classes. The seminar should consist of one director, four teachers, 
and twenty or more candidates. The time of training he places 
at three semesters. Such a practice school, which should conduct 
classes from Untertertia as well as real gymnasial divisions, would, 
according to Vogel's view, make attempts at practice teaching 
possible earlier than a regular school. Finally, to each candidate 
he would assign a tutorship over a number of pupils from the 
different classes." ' 

Sallwiirk's plan for the training of teachers is also 
worthy of mention. He would establish a special state 
seminar {Staatsseminar) under the leadership of state 
authority, and separate from both the university and 
any particular higher school. Schools of various kinds, 
however, should be available for purposes of observation 
and practice. Candidates for both lower and higher 
schools should be admitted, and each should be required 
to do some teaching in both kinds of schools. The first 
lesson plans should be used, not in school classes, but in 
groups of candidates, and should be criticized by them. 
The theoretical study should include short courses in the 
theory of science {Wissenschaf tslehre) , the history of cul- 
* Ibid., 1 06. 



l8o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

ture (KulturgeschicMe), psychology, physiology, ethics, 
pedagogy, hygiene, school architecture, and drawing, — 
a rather broad field for one year's work. 

The gymnasial seminar, in its modern form, is still 
young in Germany. The schoolmen feel this, and they 
are earnest in their endeavors to increase its efficiency as 
experience points the way. Seminar directors publish 
reports from time to time, covering their experience for a 
series of years. As an institution it is still in process 
of development, but the testim.ony of school directors 
whose teachers have been trained in it, and indeed the 
opinion of educators generally, is very strong in its favor. 

Length of Period of Practical Training. — The dura- 
tion of the period of practical training is a question about 
which there is considerable difference of opinion. Not all 
of the German states have gymnasial seminars of their 
own, but their teachers are trained in those of other 
states. Of the states which have seminars, Prussia, 
Braunschweig, Saxe-Weimar, Hesse, and Mecklenburg 
have both the Seminarjahr and the Prohejahr; Baden, 
Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirttemberg have but one year of 
practical training. From 1826 to 1890 the Prohejahr had 
been a requirement in Prussia. In general this was 
simply a time of trial teaching, the candidate often 
receiving no particular instruction or assistance from his 
superiors. As was to be expected, this proved unsatis- 
factory as a training period, and in 1890 the Seminarjahr 



OPINION AND PRACTICE l8l 

was instituted, and more definite rules for the work of 
the Probejahr were prescribed. There are many who 
believe that both of these years are important, the first 
as a time for the study of theory and practice, with 
emphasis upon the former; the second as a time for 
the study of theory and practice, with emphasis upon 
the latter. The present law in Prussia prescribes two 
years, and German officials are not disposed to criticize 
existing regulations of any sort; but there are many 
who think that, if a proper division of time were made 
between theoretical study and actual practice during 
one year, quite as good results would be obtained as are 
now secured under the two-year arrangement. 



CHAPTER V 

Standing of the Teacher in the Higher Schools 

When the candidate has received his certificate as 
Oberlehrer, or teacher in the higher schools, he is ready 
for a permanent appointment. A few years ago, when 
there was a superabundance of teachers, he had to wait 
from two to ten years for such an appointment. Five 
years might be regarded as a low average. In the mean- 
time he might teach in a private school or do such odd 
jobs as he could get, which, in Germany, are not abun- 
dant ; but he was not permitted to do work that was 
beneath the dignity of his profession, and he was required 
to hold himself in readiness for an appointment at any 
time. At present, owing to a scarcity of teachers 
throughout Germany, an appointment, as already stated, 
is likely to come at once. When a vacancy occurs, 
qualified teachers are chosen as their names appear on the 
waiting list, except that the authorities may choose any 
one from the first three. Once he is appointed, the 
teacher in the higher schools, like every other German 
official, occupies a very clearly defined position with 
reference to the state and only a little less definite posi- 



STAISTDING OF THE TEACHER IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 1 83 

tion in his relations to society. Professionally and finan- 
cially the state has fixed his status, and his social rank is 
determined more by his birth and professional position 
than by any thing else. 

Professionally his standing is as clearly recognized as is 
that of the clergyman, lawyer, physician, or state of&cial 
of any sort. In Germany there is not only a profession of 
teaching, but there is a profession of teaching in the higher 
schools. Neither a teacher in the lower schools nor a 
university professor can enter that profession except 
through the straight and narrow way of specific prepara- 
tion for it. As shown in preceding chapters, the state 
has sharply defined what that preparation shall be. It 
has also provided that, when a man has met the conditions 
prescribed, he shall receive recognition as a learned man 
and a state ofiicial of definite rank. He cannot be de- 
prived of his position except for cause. Within certain 
hmits, which are no more narrow for him than for other 
German officials, he is left free to follow his own devices 
as a professional expert. If he is reasonably successful, 
no one is likely to interfere with him. If he shows supe- 
rior ability, either as an administrator or as a teacher, he is 
always in line of promotion. He is a learned man along 
with the university professor, and he may be called to the 
latter's chair or to the directorship of a school or to a 
higher administrative position in the state. He begins 
his professional career with twenty-four hours of teaching 



l84 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

per week ; after twelve years it is reduced to twenty-two 
hours, and after twenty years it may be further reduced to 
twenty hours, where it remains for the remainder of his 
working Hfe. The upper half of the teachers in the 
Prussian higher schools, that is, the half longest in service, 
the minimum period being twelve years, are given the 
title of professor, and they are promoted from class five 
to class four of state officials. Since the teacher's finan- 
cial compensation is definitely determined by a special 
law, it is not affected by this promotion. Whether re- 
garded from within the profession or from without, he 
may always have the stimulating consciousness of a defi- 
nite professional recognition. 

Financially the teacher's position is fixed by the state. 
According to the law of June 5, 1909, the salaries of 
teachers in the higher schools of Prussia which are sup- 
ported by the state or over which the state exercises au- 
thority, are as follows : — 

"The annual salary is: — 

"i. For the principals of complete institutions (Gymnasia, 
Realgymnasia, Oberrealschulen) : — 

"a. In Berlin, 6000 to 7200 marks.^ 

"b. In other places, 5400 to 7200 M., besides 600 M. ad- 
ditional for living expenses. 
"2. For the principals of institutions having less than a nine- 
year course (Progymnasien, Realprogymnasien, Realschulen) , 4800 
to 7200 M., besides 400 M. additional for living expenses. 

1 The mark equals about twenty-four cents of United States Money. 



STANDING OF THE TEACHER IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 1 85 

"3. For officially appointed scientific teachers, 2700 to 7200 M. 

"4. For officially appointed teachers who have passed the pre- 
scribed examination as drawing teachers for the higher schools, or 
who have proved their qualifications as music teachers for the 
higher schools, or who are qualified for appointment as teachers 
in the Mittelschulen, 2100 to 4500 M. 

"5. For other officially appointed technical and elementary 
teachers, as well as teachers in the Vorschule, 1800 to 4200 M. The 
scientific assistants receive a yearly remimeration of from 2100 
to 3000 M. 

"The increase in salary is given in the form of additions for 
term of service. 

"i. For principals of complete institutions: — 

"a. In BerUn (§ i. No. i, a), 600 M. additional after 

3 and 6 years of service. 
"&. In other places (§ i. No. i, b), 600 M. additional 
after 3, 6, and 9 years of service. 

"2. For the principals of incomplete institutions (§ i,No. 2), 
an addition of 600 M. after 3, 6, 9, and 12 years of service. 

"3. For scientific teachers (§ i, No. 3), 700 M. additional 
after 3, 6, and 9 years of service and 600 M. additional after 12, 
15, 18, and 21 years of service. 

"4. For the teachers indicated in §1, No. 4, an addition 
of 300 M. after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 years of service. 

"5. For other technical and elementary teachers, as well as 
for teachers in the Vorschule (§ i. No. 5), an addition of 300 M. 
after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 years of service, and an addition of 
200 M. after 21, 24, and 27 years of service. 

"The remuneration of scientific assistants, indicated in §1, 
begins with 2100 M. and increases after one year to 2400 M., 
after two years to 2700 M., and after four years to 3000 M." ' 

^ Beier, Adolph, Die hoheren Schulen in Preussen, 848, 1909 edition. 



1 86 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The salaries in other states are, as a rule, not quite as 
high as those in Prussia. Regularly qualified teachers in 
city schools not supported by the state must be paid at 
least as much as the state schedule indicates. As a matter 
of fact, in the larger cities they are usually paid a little 
more, otherwise they would prefer to work in schools 
supported by the state. The compensation received 
by teachers in purely private schools is usually much less 
than that paid in the schools supported by the state or 
the cities. 

The pension law of Prussia provides that, except in 
special cases, if a teacher is incapacitated for service or 
dies before he has served ten years, no pension is paid to 
him or his family. If he is incapacitated after ten years 
of service, he receives a pension amounting to 33!^ per cent 
of the sum of his last year's salar}^ and his expense 
allowance, with an increase of one sixtieth each year 
thereafter. After forty years of service, or at the age of 
sixty-five, he may retire with a pension amounting to 75 
per cent of his last year's salary, but the amount may 
not exceed 6000 marks. In case of his death, his widow 
receives four tenths of the pension which her husband 
would have received had he been pensioned on the day 
that he died, but the amount may not exceed 2400 
marks. Each of their children who is under eighteen 
years of age, receives one fifth of the amount of the 
widow's pension. In case of the death of both parents, 



STANDING OF THE TEACHER IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 187 

each child receives one third of the amount of the 
widow's pension. But in no case can the total amount 
paid to the widow and children exceed the amount of 
the pension due the father at the time of his death. 
The pension laws of other states are similar to those of 
Prussia, although there are various minor differences. 

The salary of the higher school teacher is not large, 
but if he uses strict economy, it enables him to pursue the 
scholarly life, to maintain his family in comfort, and to 
meet the requirements of good living in the social class 
to which he belongs ; while the certainty of a pension in 
case of misfortune or death after a few years of service, 
relieves him from anxiety for the future. 

Social Position in Germany depends not upon wealth, 
but upon birth and official position. If, by dint of his own 
industry and ability and the self-denial of his parents, a 
man &,ttains official position the social prestige of which is 
higher than that accorded to him by birth, his social 
position is determined by the official position, although 
he may be less warmly welcomed by his associates on ac- 
count of his lower birth. If, on the contrary, his social 
position by birth is higher than that accorded to the 
official class of which he is a member, he usually has 
the benefit of both, a possible exception being made of 
those cases in which the social class in which he is born 
feels itself humiliated by the official service in which he 
is engaged. The social position of the higher school 



1 88 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

teacher is, in general, simply that of the official class to 
which he belongs. Socially, as well as financially, it 
ranks with that of the judges. This equality was ex- 
pressed tersely by a prominent school director who said 
that a young woman would marry a teacher as willingly 
as a judge, — a very significant test in Germany. Judges, 
clergymen, ' higher post-office officials, and teachers in 
the higher schools are social comrades, the members of 
each group having had approximately the same amount 
of training for their work. They all belong to the lowest 
class of officials into which the Provinzial KoUegium is 
divided, but recognition even in this lowest class is a very 
important matter, since it secures good social standing. 



CHAPTER VI 

Impressions of the German System 

The German system of training teachers for the higher 
schools is an integral part of a complex and elaborate 
educational system, and judgment concerning its merits 
should be based upon a knowledge of the whole organiza- 
tion. No nation has a more clearly defined idea of the 
ends of education, and in no nation will be found more 
carefully considered means for the attainment of those 
ends. In this discussion there is no attempt to examine 
or criticize German ideals, but only to record impressions 
concerning the efficiency of the German methods of train- 
ing teachers for the schools in which those ideals are being 
worked out, and incidentally to suggest the adaptabihty of 
some parts of their system to our own purposes. The 
points to be considered are the general academic training 
in the higher school and the university, the pedagogical 
training in the university, the state examination (6*^^/5- 
examen), the Seminarjahr, and the Probejahr. 

The General Academic Training of the higher 
school teacher is excellent. In the higher school he 
has been thoroughly drilled in the elements of many sub- 

189 



190 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

jects, as a glance at the programs of studies for these 
schools shows. Before he leaves the school, in most cases, 
he has chosen the subjects in which he wishes to give 
instruction when he becomes a teacher. In the required 
three years at the university he has had an opportunity 
for scholarly training both in these subjects and in such 
others as he may elect. He may even proceed to the 
degree of doctor of philosophy before taking the state 
examination for admission to the Seminarjahr. Although 
this is not required, an increasingly large number of stu- 
dents do it. The result is that he is a well-trained, schol- 
arly, and reasonably mature man before he can become a 
candidate for the position of teacher in the higher schools. 
He has had time and opportunity to become imbued with 
the spirit of the scholarly life. 

Such a man is prepared to lecture at length to his 
pupils upon the subjects of his choice ; indeed it would 
be much easier for him to do this than to do the teaching 
that is required of him when he begins his course of 
practical training. He has been studying the abstrac- 
tions of pure mathematics, let us say, or the niceties of 
comparative philology ; he must now teach arithmetic and 
the elements of language to nine-year-old boys. In mak- 
ing this transition, however, he does not lose the power 
and the instincts of the scholar. These remain with him 
to give strength and inspiration for every day's work. 
The writer has seen German teachers teaching subject 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM IQI 

iaatter which seemed very heavy for the grade of pupils 
coacerned, but it was always well taught. He has never 
seen a teacher " shooting over the heads " of pupils simply 
because he was a scholarly man. On the other hand, it 
was a great satisfaction to see classroom work in which 
the teacher gave no anxious thought to the subject matter, 
but had his whole attention fixed upon teaching to pupils 
that which was to him perfectly familiar. The American 
fear that a man may know too much to be a good second- 
ary school teacher does not prevail in Germany. If the 
danger exists, a way of overcoming it seems to have been 
found. My impression is that the superior scholarship 
of the German teacher is the most important single factor 
in the excellence of German schools. 

Take, for example, the field of modern-language teach- 
ing. The ideal of the schools is to give the pupils not 
only a reading knowledge but also an elementary speaking 
knowledge of the language studied five or six years in 
school. Under no circumstances can such a knowledge 
be attained except from a teacher who knows both the 
written and the spoken language. The philological train- 
ing of German students is always thorough, but they are 
now required to add to this a speaking knowledge of the 
language, gained by at least six months' residence in a 
country in which that language is spoken, or they must 
show equal proficiency gained in some other way. The 
impetus to foreign language teaching given by such 



192 TRAESriNG OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

instructors is tremendous. They not only learn the lan- 
guage, but they become acquainted to some extent with the 
spirit of the people whose tongue it is, — a very important 
element in successful language teaching. Under their in- 
struction the language is " moved," as the Germans say, 
and the pupils are accustomed from the beginning to assist 
in the operation. The language studied becomes the 
language of the classroom, and the pupils learn the com- 
mon idioms of speech and correct pronunciation, as well 
as the significance of words as they appear on the printed 
page. The attainments of German teachers of the mod- 
ern languages are at once surprising and discouraging 
to the ordinary American modern-language teacher, and 
the fundamental basis of success is found in the teacher's 
thorough knowledge of the subject matter. 

The Theoretical Pedagogical Training received by the 
student in the German university is a rather uncertain 
quantity. Since a university student is entirely free in 
his choice of subjects, his interest may or may not lead 
him into pedagogical courses, even if he is in an institu- 
tion in which such courses are given. Reference to the 
list of courses in education offered in German universities 
from Easter, 1907, to Easter, 19 10, shows that the oppor- 
tunities for pedagogical training are very limited in some 
of them. In several cases they are confined to philosophy, 
ethics, and general psychology, which are nearly always 
given. In a few institutions educational psychology holds 



IMPEi;SSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 1 93 

a high place. The most common course in pedagogy 
proper is that in the history of pedagogy and pedagogical 
systems. Courses in general method and in methods of 
teaching particular subjects are occasionally given, and 
also courses in gymnasial pedagogy. Courses in manage- 
ment and in the sociological phases of education are 
almost entirely wanting, probably because management 
is so largely an affair of school administrators, and 
because the study of sociological problems, outside of offi- 
cial circles, has not yet taken a deep hold on German 
thought. In only a few institutions is there opportunity 
for observation and practice teaching under the super- 
vision of the university department of education. The 
fact that the student must be examined upon philosophy 
and pedagogy will probably induce him to take at least 
one or two courses in these subjects as well as in psychol- 
ogy, tut the number of courses may be very small and the 
work elementary. An examination of the reports of the 
candidates in the seminarium prceceptorum shows that 
this was actually the case in several instances. In general 
the study of the theory of education in the university 
course by prospective teachers is not very extensive, and 
in some cases more would certainly be desirable. On the 
whole this work seems not superior to that offered in many 
American universities, and it is probable that the Ameri- 
can student now devotes as much time to it as the 
German. 



194 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The state Examination has for its purpose testing the 
attainments of the student on the scientific or purely 
academic side to determine whether his scholarship is 
sufficient and of such a character as to make him a 
suitable candidate for the position of teacher in the higher 
schools. A considerable knowledge of religion, the Ger- 
man language and literature, philosophy, and pedagogy 
is thought to be a necessary part of the equipment of 
every teacher, and this is tested in every case by an oral 
examination and by a thesis which is supposed to indi- 
cate the applicant's power to think and to express his 
thoughts systematically. In the preparation of the 
thesis he is permitted to use books freely, but he is re- 
quired to sign a statement that he has received no 
assistance from persons. The examination in the sub- 
jects which he wishes to teach is much more severe. 
He must defend his thesis, he must write a short paper on 
some topic assigned at the beginning of the three-hour 
period permitted for it, and he must pass an oral exami- 
nation before the committee of examiners. In all of its 
different forms the examination is a serious and dignified 
procedure and a real test of the applicant's ability in 
various directions. It gives assurance that the required 
three years at the university have not been spent in vain. 
It tests general culture, scholarly knowledge of the prin- 
cipal subjects, ability to use the German language in the 
systematic expression of ideas, and, in a general way, the 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 195 

trend of the candidate's thought. On the whole, it seems 
to emphasize the important things and to contribute 
safety and dignity to the profession. 

The Seminarjahr is the keystone in the arch which 
binds together and holds in place high academic scholar- 
ship on the one side and thorough pedagogical training on 
the other. It is the most modern and the most distinctive 
feature of the German system of training teachers. Be- 
fore its establishment in 1892, the teaching in German 
higher schools was what might have been expected from 
scholarly men with a minimum of theoretical pedagogical 
training. Since its introduction the practical pedagogy 
of the higher schools has greatly improved. The Ger- 
mans themselves feel that the institution is still in its in- 
fancy and that it may be made more effective with experi- 
ence, but in general they have great faith in it. It was 
introduced because a need was felt for better professional 
training than was afforded by the academic and theoreti- 
cal pedagogical work of the university and by the trial 
teaching of the Prohejahr. The purpose of the new in- 
stitution is to combine theoretical and practical peda- 
gogical training under the direction of a practical school- 
man of long and successful experience, who is competent 
to show the relation between theory and practice. 

The members of the seminar constitute in themselves 
the most striking factor in the work of the Seminarjahr. 
They are young men, usually between twenty-five and 



196 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

thirty years old ; they are scholarly, capable, ambitious, 
and eager for admission to their profession. The career 
upon which they are about to enter is an honorable one, 
and it will afford a competence for themselves and their 
families. They have but to prove themselves competent 
during- this year and the next, and the doors of the pro- 
fession swing open to them for life. They must succeed, 
however, during these trial years, otherwise they miss the 
goal entirely. They have every incentive to become 
good teachers at the earliest possible moment, and they 
are in a position to profit greatly by the training which 
the work of the year affords. 

The ability of the members of the seminar as learners 
is matched by that of the directors as instructors. They 
are always men of long and successful experience, and 
they are chosen with a view to their adaptability to this 
work. They are university trained men who have proved 
themselves as teachers and administrators, and some of 
whom have won distinction through their writings. In 
several cases they are professors of pedagogy in the 
universities of the cities in which they live. They are 
practically always directors of higher schools, the proper 
administration of which is their chief interest. The 
candidates are enrolled as members of the teaching staff 
in these schools, and it is the business of the directors to 
make of them the best possible teachers. The work 
required by such men under such circumstances may be 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 197 

more or less theoretical, according to their training and 
inclination, but it will surely be practical. The candi- 
date must reduce his theory and his scholarship to actual 
practice in successful teaching. There is no sharp separa- 
tion between theory and practice as there may be when 
instruction is given by university professors who have no 
direct acquaintance with the practical work of the schools. 
These directors are likely to be fairly well informed on 
pedagogical theory, and that theory has been illuminated 
by years of practical experience. They are at liberty 
to call to their assistance expert teachers of the subjects 
in which they themselves have not had special training, 
so that the direction of the seminar work is always in the 
hands of scholarly, expert, practical teachers. 

Candidates and directors alike bend their efforts to- 
wards the attainment of practical results. Considerable 
knowledge of pedagogical theory on the part of the candi- 
dates may fairly be assumed, and the subject is further 
studied and discussed in the weekly meetings of the 
seminar, but the largest returns come through the actual 
teaching of the candidates under close supervision and 
criticism either by the director or by the special teacher to 
whom the work of a candidate has been assigned. They 
are usually given the lower classes, where the problem 
of method is much more evident than it is in the higher 
classes. It is real teaching, in a real school, under normal 
conditions, that is done by these candidates from the 



198 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

beginning. They are held responsible for results, not for 
one hour only, but for the term and the year. They are 
not practicing, they are teaching ; the pupils are not be- 
ing practiced upon, they are being taught. The value 
of such teaching under careful criticism is infinitely supe- 
rior as a means of training to an occasional hour of prac- 
tice teaching. When this teaching by the candidate is 
supplemented by hours of observation of the work of 
other teachers, criticism in the seminar meetings of their 
work and his own, and the study of general pedagogical 
theory and of methods of teaching particular subjects, 
the practical training seems well-nigh ideal. The candi- 
date learns to study and criticize intelligently his own 
efforts, and he forms the habit of making the work of each 
hour as effective as possible from the standpoint of good 
teaching. The writer can think of no better means for 
the training of teachers to both theoretical alertness and 
practical efficiency than that outlined for the work of 
the Seminarjahr. 

It is true, of course, that ideal conditions are not always 
found in the real seminar. Candidates lack something 
and do not succeed. Directors may be more or less effi- 
cient, with the possibility always existing that the work 
may be unduly warped by individual prejudice. The 
directors of the higher schools are a much overworked 
body of men ; the duties of the seminar add to their bur- 
dens, and often they do not have sufficient time to devote 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 1 99 

to the needs of candidates. Not infrequently the teach- 
ing staff is so Hmited that the candidates are required 
to teach from fifteen to twenty-four hours per week from 
the start, thus having insufiicient time for observation, for 
the preparation of their work, and for professional study. 
In such cases the director and the other teachers are likely 
to be very busy also, and consequently the teaching done 
by candidates is not properly supervised and criticized. 
They are left too much to their own resources. The scar- 
city of teachers in recent years has made this state of 
affairs somewhat common, to the regret of everybody 
concerned. From occasional reports the writer received 
the impression that the gymnasial seminars are not 
always as effective as they would be if the director had 
sufficient time to devote to the instruction of candi- 
dates and the supervision of their work, and if the 
candidates had about ten hours of teaching instead of 
either more or less. It occasionally happens that the 
candidate has too little teaching to do, even less than five 
hours per week. In such cases he is likely to become 
restless because he feels that he is simply marking time 
to no profit. This situation is as unsatisfactory as the 
opposite. Fortunately each seminar director is given 
much freedom in the work of his seminar, and it is reason- 
able to expect that out of the collective experience will 
ultimately come general agreement and greater wisdom 
in the conduct of the work. It seemed to the writer that 



200 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

more theoretical pedagogical work might be expected 
of students in the university, thus leaving more time for a 
study of its application and for the consideration of prac- 
tical pedagogy in the seminar. Two things militate 
against this end at present: the principle of absolute 
freedpm in the selection of university courses, and the 
lack of opportunity for the study of pedagogy in some of 
the universities. When the gymnasial seminars were first 
established, it was feared by some that not enough com- 
petent schoolmen could be found to act as directors. 
That fear seems not to have been realized. The legal 
provision that a seminar may be discontinued at any time 
or removed from one school to another by the provincial 
school board is a safeguard against the continuance 
of a seminar in the hands of an incompetent director. 
Such defects as now exist in the work of the seminars are 
due mainly to conditions over which the directors have 
no control. 

The Probejahr, which has been part of the Prussian 
system since 1826, was originally designed to keep candi- 
dates out of the profession until they had demonstrated 
their proficiency by actual teaching. It was a year of 
testing rather than of training. Directors were ofhcially 
urged to give careful supervision to the work of these 
young and inexperienced teachers, but no express pro- 
vision was made for it, and the multiplicity of other 
duties prevented its effective accomplishment. The 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 20I 

result was that in the great majority of cases the Prohe- 
jahr was little more than a period of probation in which 
the candidate, without any particular assistance from 
others, had the opportunity to demonstrate his teaching 
ability. It was but natural that this should be regarded 
as unsatisfactory when educators began to think carefully 
about the training of teachers for the higher schools. 
Since the introduction of the Seminarjakr, the Probejahr 
has remained as a time of further testing. There is not so 
much emphasis on training, since the candidate is usually 
not required to attend the meetings of a seminar or to 
follow any systematic course of professional study. 
However, the fact that he must make a written report at 
the close of the year concerning his work, and the knowl- 
edge that the work of this year is an important factor in 
making up his final record, serve to keep his attention 
fixed upon the professional character of his work, and 
the ultimate result is a considerable amount of training. 
When the candidate in the Probejahr is assigned full work, 
that is, twenty-four hours per week, and is paid as an 
assistant, the year seems to serve a purpose without 
being a burden ; but when he is given only a few hours of 
teaching and receives little or no pay, he is likely to be- 
come restless, and with good reason. The writer is dis- 
posed to share the opinion of a considerable number of 
German educators, that, if the work of the Seminarjakr 
were properly ordered and the time of the candidates 



202 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

wisely divided between theoretical and practical studies, 
as good pedagogical results would be obtained from one 
year of training as are now secured from two, and the 
Prohejahr would be superfluous. The present custom 
safeguards the profession at the expense of the individual 
candidate. When one takes into consideration the sharp 
competition for place in Germany, however, and the 
scrupulous care exercised by the government in the 
selection of teachers, it is easy to understand, and per- 
haps also to justify, the existing requirement. 

Political, social, and industrial conditions in Germany 
are very different from those in the United States; never- 
theless it seems to the writer that we could with profit 
follow Germany's example in some matters relating to 
the training of teachers. It may not be practicable now 
to require as high general academic scholarship of the 
teachers in our high schools as is required of the teachers 
in German secondary schools, but a considerably higher 
standard than now prevails is both desirable and feasible. 
The theoretical pedagogical training required of German 
teachers is not too much to ask of our high school teachers, 
and opportunities for securing it are available in many 
American universities. We may well look towards the 
ultimate adoption of a thorough special examination for 
high school teachers, an examination that shall give both 
safety and dignity to the calling. Especially should we 
adapt the work of the Seminarjahr and the Prohejahr to 



IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM 203 

our needs. We either already have or we are rapidly de- 
veloping facilities in our colleges and universities for 
the instruction of candidates in general academic subjects 
and in the theory of education, but there is yet lacking an 
institution that does the work of the German gymnasial 
seminar. It is needless to say that the Seminarjahr 
and the Prohejahr cannot be taken over entire; they 
would have to be modified and adapted to American con- 
ditions. The writer believes that adaptation may be 
secured by a combined effort of the high schools and the 
pedagogical departments of the colleges and universities, 
under the leadership of the latter. A plan for the ac- 
complishment of this end is described in the following 
chapters. 



PART II 
THE TRAINING OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 



CHAPTER VII 

The Certification of American Teachers 

In the light of Germany's past experience and present 
practice it is purposed to discuss in the following chap- 
ters the training of teachers for American secondary 
schools. It is evident that the conditions under which the 
work of education is carried on in the two countries are 
very different, and that consequently nothing can be taken 
over from one country to the other without proper adap- 
tation to existing conditions; but this fact should not 
prevent us from adapting to our own need and incorporat- 
ing into our own educational systems those elements 
which they do not now possess, but which have proved 
themselves eminently satisfactory in the German system. 

The Sphere of the American Secondary School. — This 
discussion assumes the sphere of the secondary school to 
be that covered by a four-year program of studies, follow- 
ing an eight-year elementary school course, as it is found 
in the ordinary American high school. Such a program 
provides for from one half year to four years of work 
in each of several selected subjects. The list of subjects 
from which choice is made includes English, Latin, Greek, 

207 



208 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

German, French, advanced arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry, drawing, ancient, medieval, and modern 
history, history of the United States, civil government, 
economics, physical geography, botany, zoology, biology, 
physics, chemistry, music, stenography, type-writing, 
bookkeeping, commercial geography, commercial law, 
manual training and the household arts. The course 
covers approximately the years from fourteen to eighteen, 
although a few pupils enter before fourteen and a con- 
siderable number remain beyond the age of eighteen. 
The discussion would apply equally well if the entire 
course of study were reorganized so that the elementary 
school and the high school would have six years each. 

The Standards of Certification of high school teachers 
in the different states of the United States represent wide 
difference of practice. Before the year 1900 not more 
than a half dozen states possessed a legal standard of cer- 
tification for high school teachers which was different 
from that required of teachers in the elementary schools. 
In the other states the holder of any certificate of any 
grade was legally qualified to teach in the high school; 
moreover, in nearly half of the states this is true at the 
present time. That is to say, only recently has there 
been any legal recognition of difference between the 
training needed for the teacher in the elementary school 
and that needed for the teacher in the high school. The 
minimum qualifications required of the former have usu- 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 209 

ally been very low, even for the elementary school work. 
They were, of course, even less satisfactory for the high 
school. 

The present legal requirements for the certification 
of teachers in the different states, especially those en- 
acted since 1900, show a tendency to differentiate be- 
tween the training required of high school teachers and 
that required of elementary school teachers. Such pro- 
visions as now prevail where a distinction is made are 
given in brief on the following pages. With a few excep- 
tions they are interesting as indicating the present low 
standards and the steps by which progress is effected, 
rather than as expressing any satisfactory permanent 
standards. 

Alabama. — "No teacher shall be eligible to teach in any high 
school established under the provision of this article, unless holding 
a first-grade or life certificate." ^ 

"For first-grade certificates they shall be examined in all the 
(common) branches and also in algebra, natural philosophy, 
geometry, the school laws of Alabama, and the theory and practice 
of teaching." ^ 

A life certificate may be granted to an applicant who has taught 
successfully for six years under a first-grade certificate.^ 

Arkansas. — "The license held by the teacher must show that 
the holder has passed a satisfactory examination on each subject 
he teaches." * 

^ School Laws of Alabama, 1908, Sec. 1865, p. 61. Enacted 1908. 
2 7S«?., Sec, 1734, p. 25. ^76z£?., Sec. 1741, p. 27. 

* Letter from office of State Superintendent. 

P 



2IO TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

California stands far ahead of any other state in the require- 
ments for high school teachers, and therefore they are given in full. 

"Extracts from the Political Code op California 
"Section 1521. The powers and duties of the State Board of 
Education are as follows: . . . 

"2. (a) To prescribe by general rule the credentials upon which 
persons may be granted certificates to teach in the high schools 
of this state. No credentials shall be prescribed or allowed, unless 
the same, in the judgment of said board, are the equivalent of a 
diploma of graduation from the University of Cahfornia, and are 
satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has taken an amount 
of pedagogy equivalent to the minimum amount of pedagogy 
prescribed by the State Board of Education of this state, and in- 
clude a recommendation for a high school certificate from the fac- 
ulty of the institution in which the pedagogical work shall have 
been taken. 

" {b) The said board shall also consider the cases of individual 
appKcants who have taught successfully for a period of not less 
than twenty school months, and who are not possessed of the cre- 
dentials prescribed by the board under the provisions of this 
section. The said board in its discretion may issue to such appli- 
cants special credentials upon which they may be granted cer- 
tificates to teach in the high schools of the state. In such special 
cases, the board may take cognizance of any adequate evidence 
of preparation which the applicants may present. The standard 
of qualification in such special cases shall not be lower than that 
represented by the other credentials named by the board under 
the provisions of this section. 

"Governing Principles 

"The State Board of Education, at its meeting held on Decem- 
ber 4 and 5, 1905, gave thoughtful consideration to the question 
of high school certification. Upon invitation of the board a com- 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 211 

mittee of the faculty of the University of CaKfornia was present, 
and a thorough discussion of the matter was had, and as a result 
of such conference, the State Board of Education agreed to the 
following governing principles as expressing their interpretation 
of the powers and duties conferred upon said Board by Section 
1 52 1 of the Political Code, in reference to high school certification: 

"Four things are the evident intent of the law: — 

"(o) That a high grade of both academic and pedagogical 
efficiency be maintained, the State University being taken as the 
academic standard. 

" (b) That the State Board of Education shall be the sole judge 
of the professional standards to be maintained, and of the equiva- 
lence of credentials to University of California standards. 

"(c) That nothing in the standards set by the general regu- 
lations of the board shall unjustly prevent the certification of fit 
individuals who cannot technically meet the requirements of such 
rules. 

"(d) That no state institution, or set of state institutions, as 
such, shaU be permitted to control secondary certification. The 
aim is squarely the efficiency of the secondary teaching service. 
The responsible judge and authority is the State Board of Edu- 
cation. 

"Minimum Amount of Pedagogy 

"The minimum amount of pedagogy which Section 1521, sub- 
division 2 (a) of the Political Code, directs the State Board of 
Education to prescribe, is hereby declared to be as follows : — 

"Satisfactory completion of courses, suitable and essential to 
requiring efficient skill in teaching and an intelligent comprehen- 
sion of the scope, and the attainable goals in high school instruc- 
tion ; said courses to be equivalent to not less than twelve hours 
per week for one half year ; provided that at least one third of 
this work shall consist of practical teaching under the direction 
of supervising instructors of academic competency and breadth 



212 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

of pedagogic comprehension who for a period of not less than two 
years have taught the subjects in which they supervise. 

"The State Board of Education is not authorized by Section 
1 52 1 to specify institutions in which this prescribed pedagogy 
may be taken, but as standards of equivalents the certificate from 
any institution belonging to the Association of American Uni- 
versities, or from any California State normal school, or their 
recognized eqmvalents, may be accepted, provided that the recom- 
mendation of applicants by faculties of institutions in which the 
pedagogical courses are pursued attests that the requirements 
above stated have been fulfilled. 

" Rules for the Granting of High School Certificates 

"In pursuance of the above-mentioned principles, the State 
Board of Education has formulated the following rules for the 
granting of high school certificates : — 

" I. High school certificates may be issued under the provisions 
of Section 1521, subdivision 2 (o), and Section 1775, subdivision i 
(a), of the Political Code of CaUfornia, as follows : — 

"a. To candidates who have received the bachelor's degree 
from a coUege requiring not less than eight years of 
high school and coUege training, and who submit 
evidence that in addition to the courses required 
for the bachelor's degree they have successfully 
completed at least one year of graduate study 
in a university belonging to the Association of 
American Universities; which year of graduate 
study shall include one half year of advanced 
academic study (part of the time, at least, being 
devoted to one or more of the subjects taught in the 
high school), and such other time in a well equipped 
training school of secondary grade directed by the 
Department of Education of any one of the univer- 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 213 

sities of the association, as may be necessary to fulfill 
the pedagogical requirements prescribed by this board. 
"b. To candidates who have received the bachelor's 
degree from a college requiring not less than eight 
years of high school and college training, and who 
submit evidence that in addition to the courses 
required for the bachelor's degree they have suc- 
cessfully completed at least one half year of gradu- 
ate study in a university belonging to the Asso- 
ciation of American Universities ; which half year 
of graduate study shall consist of advanced aca- 
demic study (part of the time at least being devoted 
to one or more of the subjects taught in the high 
school) ; and six months as student teachers in a well- 
equipped school of secondary grade directed by a Cal- 
ifornia state normal, or its recognized equivalent, 
imder conditions conforming to the requirements 
prescribed by this board as the minimum amoimt 
of pedagogy. 

"2. In lieu of the pedagogical training above prescribed, candi- 
dates may submit evidence showing that they are graduates of a 
California state normal school, or other normal school ofiicially 
recognized by this board as of equivalent rank, or have taught 
with decided success as regular teachers or as principals at least 
twenty months in any reputable school, elementary or secondary ; 
and provided that until further notice, the practical teaching pre- 
scribed may have been pursued in schools of grammar or secondary 
grade in connection with a CaUfornia state normal school, or under 
the direction' of the Department of Education of the University 
of California or of Leland Stanford Junior University, as evidenced 
by a certificate of proficiency." ^ 

Colorado. — "If the applicant is to teach in a school of high 

^ Bulletin No. 99, California Department of Education, August, 
1906, p. 47. 



214 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

grade, the examination shall extend to such additional branches 
of study (beyond the common school branches) as are to be pur- 
sued in such school." ^ 

"In first-class districts, the school board may employ high 
school teachers without examination, if they give evidence of ade- 
quate training for the work they are to do. In all other dis- 
tricts, applicants for high school positions are required to take the 
regular county examination and in addition be examined in the 
subjects they expect to teach in the high school." ^ 

Connecticut. — "The board of school visitors or town com- 
mittee" shall "examine all candidates for teachers in such (high) 
schools, and give to those of satisfactory moral character, literary 
attainments, and ability to teach, a certificate stating what 
branches they are capable of teaching." ^ 

District of Columbia. — "No person without a degree from an 
accredited coUege, or a graduation certificate from an accredited 
normal school, such normal school graduate to have had at least 
five years of experience as a teacher in a high school, shall hereafter 
be appointed to teach any academic or scientific subjects in the 
normal, high, and manual training schools ; provided, that no 
such teacher in the normal, high, and manual training schools, 
or teacher of special studies shall be appointed until he shall have 
passed an examination prescribed by the boards of examiners 
hereinafter provided for." * 

Florida. — "Under a regulation of the State Board of Educa- 
tion the principal of a senior high school must be the holder of a 
state certificate, and the principal of a rural graded school or junior 
high school must be the holder of a first-grade certificate." ^ 

1 School Laws, 1909, Sec. 5991, p. 96. 

^ Circular letter from State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

^ School Laws, 1908, Sec. 67, p. 22. 

* Rules and By-laws of the Board of Education of the District of 
Columbia, 1907, p. 17. 

^ Letter from William M. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 215 

Indiana has four forms of high school Hcense. The follow- 
ing provisions concerning it are made by the State Board of 
Education. 

" (o) Twelve Months. — VaKd to teach the subjects desig- 
nated in any public high school of the state for a period of twelve 
months. The eligibihty and grade requirements are precisely 
the same as for a twelve months common school. 

"The subjects are : Latin, German, French, Spanish, literature 
and composition, history and civics, physical geography, commer- 
cial geography, zoology, botany, physics, chemistry, commercial 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, and stenography. 
From this list the appUcant selects the subjects he expects to 
teach. An appHcant may have a license if he makes the required 
grades and average on a majority of the subjects attempted. In 
all Uterature examinations the manuscript is graded from o to 75 
on correctness of answers and from o to 25 on the quality of Eng- 
lish used. 

" (6) Twenty-four Months. — VaUd to teach the subjects desig- 
nated in any public high school of the state for a period of twenty- 
four months. The ehgibility and grade requirements are precisely 
the same as for a twenty-four months' common school. To secure 
this Hcense the appHcant must pass successfidly in five or more of 
the subjects named in {a). 

" (c) Thirty-six Months. — VaHd to teach the subjects desig- 
nated in any public high school of the state for a period of thirty- 
six months. The eHgibiHty and grade requirements are precisely 
the same as for a thirty-six months' common school. To secure 
this Hcense the appHcant must pass successfully in five or more of 
the subjects designated in (a). 

" (d) Sixty Months. — VaHd to teach the common branches 
in any pubHc school of the state and the designated high school 
subjects in any pubHc high school of the state for a period of sixty 
months. The eligibility requirements are the same as for a thirty- 
six months' common school. 



2l6 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"The examination for this Kcense is taken in two divisions. 
The First Division is upon the common branches. The grade and 
average requirements are the same as for a thirty-six months' 
Kcense. No license is issued upon first-division results. The 
Second Division includes the high school subjects. These are ar- 
ranged in five groups with requirements as indicated. 

"I. Literature and composition (required). 
"II. Algebra or geometry (one required). 
"III. Botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, or physical geography 

(one required). 
"IV. History and civics, Latin, German, French, or Spanish 

(one required). 
"V. One subject not already taken, to be selected from II, III, 
IV. 

"Five subjects selected as above are required. The applicant 
may if he chooses pass upon additional high school subjects and 
have them properly entered upon the license. Upon the high 
school subjects the average must be 85 per cent with no grade 
below 75 per cent. Both divisions must be taken in one calendar 
year. An applicant who fails on the second division may at the 
end of the year receive a license upon the first division, provided 
the grades warrant it." ^ 

Kansas. — "The board of trustees (of a county high school) 
shall appoint some competent person who, with the principal of the 
high school, and with the county superintendent of public instruc- 
tion as chairman thereof, shall constitute the examining commit- 
tee of the high school, whose duty it shall be to examine all persons 
who may apply to them in the subjects such persons propose to 
teach in said high school; and no person except one holding a 
diploma or a certificate from the State Board of Education, or a 

1 Notes on Indiana Teachers' Licenses, 1910, by R. J. Aley, State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 217 

diploma from the State Normal School, State University, State 
Agricultural College, or some college or university accredited by the 
State Board of Education, shall be employed by the board of trus- 
tees as a teacher in the high school, unless such person is the holder 
of a certificate signed by the examining committee, or a majority 
of them, setting forth that such person is competent to teach such 
subjects in said high school, and is a person of good moral charac- 
ter." 1 

" The above statement represents only the law relative to the 
granting of certificates to teachers of county high schools. It is 
the only certificate, however, that is issued exclusively for high 
schools. All coimty certificates and state certificates are valid high 
school certificates within the territory over which they extend. 
Cities having over 2000 inhabitants and other cities having ten or 
more teachers may provide their own standards for the issuance of 
certificates, and in those cases they fix a separate standard for high 
school teachers, and issue high school certificates." ^ 

Minnesota. — "The principal and aU other teachers in the 
high school are to hold first-grade professional certificates, either 
upon diploma or by examination." 

"The subjects for professional examination are : — 

"I. Educational science, — general pedagogy, history of educa- 
tion, psychology, school organization and law. 
"II. Mathematics, — higher algebra, solid geometry, and trigo- 
nometry. 
"III. English, — American literature, English literature, and 

rhetoric. 
" IV. History, — ancient history, medieval and modern history, 

English history, and American history. 
" V, Science, — astronomy, botany, chemistry, geology and 
physiography, physics, poUtical science, and zoology. 

^ School Laws, 1909, chap. VII, Sec. 161. Enacted 1907. 
2 Letter from State Superintendent E. T. Fairchild. 



2l8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

" For a first-grade professional certificate, the applicant, after 
having secured a first-grade common school certificate, must 
pass in all the branches headed Educational Science; two of those in 
Mathematics; two of those in English; three of those in History; 
three of those in Science — fourteen branches in all." ^ 

Montana. — "No person shall be employed as a teacher in high 
school, or as the principal teacher of a school of more than two 
departments, who is not the owner of a professional county certifi- 
cate or the holder of a life or state diploma issued by the State 
Board of Education of the state of Montana, or who is not a 
graduate of some reputable university, college, or normal school." ^ 

Nebraska. — " Section 17. High School Teachers, Qualifications. 
On and after September i, 1907, no person shall be granted a certifi- 
cate to teach in the high school department of any high school dis- 
trict in this state who is not a graduate from a regular four-year 
course of a college or university, or a graduate from the advanced 
course of a college, university, or normal school in this state author- 
ized by law to grant teachers' certificates, or who does not hold a 
professional state certificate obtained from the state superintendent 
on examination before him or a committee appointed by him as 
provided by law." ^ 

Nevada. — "It shall be the duty of the County Board of Edu- 
cation to . . . employ teachers (for county high schools) holding 
Nevada state certificates of the high school grade in full force and 
effect." * 

"The high school certificate, good for four years, shall entitle 
the holder to teach in any school, and shall be issued upon satisfac- 
tory examination in all the subjects mentioned in Sections 15 and 

^ Circular of Information Relating to Examinations, Certificates, and 
the Employment of Teachers. Issued by the Department of Public 
Instruction, June, 1908. 

2 School Laws, 1909, Sec. 968, p. 134. Enacted 1897. 

' School Laws, 1907, p. 59. Enacted 1905. 

* School Laws, 1909, chap. VIII, Sec. 7, p. 55. Law enacted 1909. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 219 

16 of this Act (common school branches, algebra, the first and 
second books of plane geometry, English, history, bookkeeping, 
physical geography, physics, chemistry, and methods of teaching) , 
and in addition thereto, botany, Latin, general history, English lit- 
erature, plane geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, civil government, and 
the history and methods of teaching." ' 

New Hampshire. — "There is no reqmrement under the law 
for the various certificates, but the State Department of PubHc 
Instruction has made regulations for these certificates which it 
has the right to do. At the present writing there are three grades ^ 
of certificates issued." ^ 

High School Certificate. — " Candidates must present satis- 
factory evidence of education adequate to prepare them for the 
work of the grade for which the certificate is asked. 

" They will present themselves for examination in the following 
groups of subjects : — 

" I. History of education, psychology, pedagogy, the school law 
of New Hampshire, and school management with special 
reference to the problems of the adolescent period. 

"II. EngUsh literature, including American authors; English 
grammar and the principles of rhetoric ; composition — 
to be determined by the general character of papers ; either 
Latin, Greek, French, or German ; either physics, chemistry, 
or biology; algebra through quadratic equations; plane 
geometry; history of the United States and the history 
of either Greece and Rome, medieval and modern Europe, 
or England; and civil government. 

" III. An examination to test special proficiency in one of the follow- 
ing departments of study at the election of the candidate : 
the Enghsh language and literature ; the Greek and Latin 
languages and literatures; the French and German lan- 

^ School Laws, 1909, chap. II, Sec. 17, p. 19. 

2 Letter from office of State Department of Public Instruction. 



220 THAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

guages and literatures; history; physics and chemistry; 
biology; mathematics; or commerce. 

" Probationary certificates valid for one year from the date thereof 
will be granted to those candidates who attain a general average 
of 70 per cent and do not fall below 50 per cent in any subject. 
Candidates for such certificates may omit the third part of the 
examination. 

" Candidates who present required evidence of graduation from 
a registered college or institution of coUegiate degree will be exempt 
from examination in Group II. 

" Candidates for secondary certificates will be allowed to file 
certificate of college standing in advanced courses of a registered 
coUege in Ueu of examination in subjects of Group III." ' 

North Carolina. — "The board of examiners, under the direc- 
tion of the State Superintendent of PubUc Instruction, shall exam- 
ine all teachers who apply to the State Superintendent for a high 
school teacher's certificate, and said examination shall be con- 
ducted in the same manner as the examination for state certifi- 
cates." 2 

"All teachers in high schools (176 rural) must hold the high 
school teacher's certificate from the State Board of Examiners." ' 

North Dakota. — "The superintendent, high school principal, 
and assistants in high schools of the first class and of the second 
class shall hold the B.A. or equivalent degree from some college 
or university of recognized standards. Exceptions may, in special 
cases, be made by the high school board, but the superintendent, 
high school principal, and assistants shall, in cases above excepted, 
be duly quahfied by holding state life professional certificates. 
The high school board is always to be the judge of evidence upon 

^ Abstract of Regulations governing State Examination and Certifi- 
cation of Teachers in the Public Schools. 

2 The Public School Law of North Carolina, 1909, p. 68, Sec. 4162. 
' Conununication from the office of the State Superintendent. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 221 

which to make exception. Further, the principal of a third-class 
high school, if not the holder of a B.A. degree or an equivalent 
degree or a Life professional certificate, shall be a graduate of some 
normal school of recognized standards, or shall have completed 
at least one half of the course for the bachelor's degree in some 
college or university of recognized standards and shall present 
satisfactory credentials to the high school board." * 

Ohio. — "No person shall be employed or enter upon the per- 
formance of his duties as a teacher in any recognized high school 
supported wholly or in part by the state in any village, township, 
or special school district, or act as a superintendent of schools in 
such district, who has not obtained from a board of examiners 
having legal jurisdiction a certificate of good moral character; 
that he or she is qualified to teach hterature, general history, 
algebra, physics, physiology including narcotics, and, in addition 
thereto, four branches elected from the following branches of 
study: Latin, German, rhetoric, civil government, geometry, physical 
geography, botany, and chemistry ; and that he or she possesses 
an adequate knowledge of the theory and practice of teaching 
(R. S. Sec. 4074)-" ' 

Oregon. — "All teachers employed in high schools organized 
under the provisions of this Act [the law refers to district, county 
and union high schools] shall be graduates of the state normal 
schools of this state, graduates of some institution of collegiate or 
university grade, or shaU be the holder of a state certificate or 
diploma." ^ 

"The examination for state certificates and state diplomas shall 
be upon questions prepared by the state board of examiners ; said 
questions shall be based upon the textbooks adopted by the state, 

^ Manual of the High School Board of North Dakota, 1909, p. 11. 
^ School Laws, 1910, p. 139, Sec. 7831. 

' School Laws of Oregon, 1907, Sec. 233 and 253, pp. 109,121. Enacted 
1903. 



222 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

arid shall cover aU the branches required for a first-grade county 
certificate, and, in addition thereto, algebra, bookkeeping, composi- 
tion, physical geography, physics, and psychology ; those for state 
diplomas, in addition to the foregoing, botany, plane geometry, gen- 
eral history, and English literature. Examinations for state cer- 
tificates and state diplomas shall be conducted in accordance with 
the rules and regulations adopted by the State Board of Education, 
consistent with the laws of the state. A state certificate shall au- 
thorize the holder thereof to teach in any public school in the state 
for five years thereafter, and the state diploma shall confer a like 
authority for life. State certificates shall be granted to such appli- 
cants only who have had thirty months' teaching experience with 
approved success, at least nine of which shall be in the schools of 
Oregon, and who shall make an average of 85 per cent in all the 
branches herein prescribed and shall not fall below 70 per cent 
in any one branch. State diplomas shall be granted to such 
applicants only as have had at least sixty months' teaching 
experience with approved success, fifteen of which shall have been 
in the schools of Oregon, and shall have made an average of 85 per 
cent in all the branches herein prescribed, and shall not fall below 
70 per cent in any one branch. Any applicant for a state cer- 
tificate or a state diploma who shall attain the required percent- 
ages in one or more of the designated branches, but shall fail 
in one or more of such branches, shall be credited with such 
required percentages, and shall be allowed to complete the ex- 
aminations in the remaining branches at the two following 
examinations, and shall then receive a state certificate or state 
diploma, in accordance with the result of all the examinations." ^ 
Pennsylvania. — "CXII. The directors or controllers of every 
district receiving aid in accordance with section four of this act, 
shall employ for said high school at least one teacher legally cer- 
tified to teach bookkeeping, civics, general history, algebra, geom- 
etry, trigonometry, including plane surveying, rhetoric, English 
^ School Laws, 1907, Art. II, Sec. 6, pp. 5, Code 3348. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 223 

literature, Latin, including Caesar, Vergil, and Cicero, and. the 
elements of physics, chemistry, including the chemistry of soils, 
botany, geology, and zoology, including entomology, and no 
teacher shall be employed to teach any branch or branches of 
learning other than those enumerated in his or her certificate." ' 

Rhode Island. — "In Rhode Island there are no state legal 
requirements for high school teachers different from that of ele- 
mentary school-teachers. It is true, however, that by general 
understanding our first-grade certificate is a high school certificate. 
There are very few teachers in our Rhode Island high schools who 
do not hold such a certificate. To obtain this certificate one must 
be a graduate of an approved college, and must possess professional 
qualifications. Professional quahfications are determined by an 
examination in history of education, psychology, philosophy of 
education, school management, methodology, school hygiene, 
and school law. Certificates of graduation or of completion of 
certain courses in approved normal schools or education depart- 
ments of colleges are accepted as evidence of professional quali- 
fications in Keu of an examination. It is also probable that before 
long a special high school certificate will be required for teaching 
in high schools. That will mean little more than making a legal 
requirement of that which is in general practice." ^ 

South Dakota. — "A high school teacher must be the holder of 
a state certificate or life diploma." ^ 

" The State Department of Public Instruction will grant life 
diplomas; First: to appUcants who shall pass a satisfactory 
examination in reading, orthography, penmanship, arithmetic, 
geography, grammar, composition. United States history, South 
Dakota history, physiology and hygiene, civics, physical geography, 
physics, algebra, geometry, and general history, aU of the pre- 
college grade; in English language and rhetoric, English and 

1 School Laws and Decisions, 1909, p. 54, CXII. Enacted 1895. 
^ Letter from Commissioner Walter E. Ranger. 
' Letter from State Superintendent H. A. Ustrud. 



224 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

American literature, either economics or sociology, any two of 
botany, zoology, physiology, physics, chemistry, Latin, German, 
geology and mineralogy, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, all of 
the college grade ; and in pedagogy, including principles, method, 
management, psychology, and history of education. 

" Possessors of first-grade certificates, issued by State Educational 
departments, may submit corresponding standings on them for the 
subjects italicized in lieu of examination, if the grades in such 
subjects average 90 per cent with no grade below 75 per cent, and 
were awarded by a state board of examiners. 

" Candidates for this credential are required to notify the De- 
partment of Education, three months in advance of the examina- 
tion, stating the subjects they have selected where alternatives 
are offered. 

" Evidence of at least forty months' experience and good moral 
character is required. Examination is offered in March and August. 

" Second : to applicants who are graduates of the State Univer- 
sity of South Dakota, or of any other approved college, having a 
course of study wherein four years' work above an approved high 
school course of four years is required for graduation. If the 
applicant has in his college course pursued one course of pedagogi- 
cal studies and professional training comprising at least one fourth 
work during at least eighteen months. If the candidate is short on 
pedagogy, the condition may be removed by examination. 

" The appUcant must file with the department a copy of the 
diploma of graduation, copy of the course of study, specifically 
showing the amount of class work and standing secured in each 
subject for the entire course, all duly certified by the proper officer 
of the institution where subjects were pursued. The candidate must 
show a record of forty months' successful experience as a teacher. 

"Third : to apphcants who are graduates of the normals of this 
state or other normals where a course of study of at least two years 
beyond an approved high school course of four years is required. 
The appUcant must file with the department certified copies of 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 22$ 

diploma, course of study, outline of work, and standing secured 
in each subject as in "two" above. Evidence of forty months' 
successful teaching experience must be submitted. 

" The law requires a fee of ten dollars from all applicants except 
graduates of the institutions of this state. 

" The department will vaKdate credentials of this class, issued by 
other state departments on equivalent requirements, but prefers 
that such appKcants work in South Dakota for at least one year 
on a state certificate. 

" State certificates, good for five years, are renewable, and will 
issue ; first : to appKcants who shall pass satisfactory examina- 
tion in reading, orthography, penmanship, arithmetic, geography, 
grammar, physiology and hygiene, United States history. South 
Dakota history, civics, American Uterature, drawing, algebra, plane 
geometry, physical geography, physics or botany, general history, 
pedagogy, English language, composition and rhetoric, provided 
that possessors of first-grade certificates issued by state depart- 
ments of education may submit corresponding standings of such 
first-grade certificates in Heu of examination in subjects itaUcized, 
provided that such standings average 90 per cent with no grade 
below 75 per cent, and also provided that the grades were awarded 
by a state board of examiners and not by local authorities. Appli- 
cants must submit evidence of at least twenty-four months' suc- 
cessful teaching experience, and good moral character. Examina- 
tion in March and August. 

" Second : to applicants who shall have graduated from any of 
the state normals of this state having a course of at least one year's 
work in advance of an approved high school course of four years, 
provided such course shall embrace all the subjects required in 
the examination for state certificates as weU as pedagogical in- 
struction and professional training, comprising at least one fourth 
work for eighteen months; the candidate shall also submit evi- 
dence of at least eighteen months' successful teaching experience, 
and evidence of good moral character. 
Q 



226 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"A provisional certificate will be issued, valid for two years, to 
graduates who have all but the teaching experience above men- 
tioned. Fee for the provisional certificate is two dollars, except 
to graduates of South Dakota institutions. 

"Applicants wiU submit their credentials as provided in "two" 
of life diplomas. 

"Third: to applicants who are graduates of any other institu- 
tion of learning, requiring the completion of courses of study equiv- 
alent to the course of the state normals, provided that if the 
institution does not offer training in an established model depart- 
ment comprising aU the grades below the high school, the candi- 
date will furnish evidence of nine months' successful experience 
as a teacher, in lieu of such model training. 

"The law requires the fee of five dollars from aU applicants 
except from graduates of the institutions within the state. Any 
appHcant desiring to have a state certificate renewed shall present 
satisfactory evidence of continued and successful teaching and 
satisfactory evidence of full attendance at a county institute 
during the current year. 

"AppUcants for state certificate on school credentials should 
read suggestions to such appHcants for hfe diplomas." ^ 

Tennessee. — "A high school teacher in this state has to undergo 
an examination before the State Board of Education. He is 
examined on the subjects embraced in the course which he is 
licensed to teach." ^ 

Utah. — " City high school certificates shaU be granted only 
to applicants who pass satisfactorily the examination required for 
grammar certificates, and, in addition thereto, sustain a satisfac- 
tory examination in civil government, physical geography, ele- 
mentary physics, elementary algebra, botany, and such other 
branches as the board of education may prescribe." ^ 

^ Circular of Information issued by State Department of Education, 
1910. ^ Letter from State Superintendent R. L. Jones, 

^ School Laws, 1909, Sec. 1924, p. 98. Enacted 1897. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 227 

"Candidates for state professional diplomas of high school 
grade shall be required by examination or other evidence to ex- 
hibit a high degree of scholarship in all the following branches, 
namely: arithmetic, United States history, reading and elocu- 
tion, orthography, English grammar, pohtical and physical geog- 
raphy, physiology, algebra, physics, rhetoric, drawing, plane and 
solid geometry, botany, English literature, general history, civil 
government, history and science of education, and psychology; 
and also in any three of the following branches, namely : chem- 
istry, geology, French, German, Latin, Greek, trigonometry, 
zoology, biology, and mineralogy." ^ 

"The State Board of Education has interpreted 'a high degree 
of scholarship ' to mean a college education including the profes- 
sional work in education and in other subjects required by law, 
and carrying with it a college degree. A state high school di- 
ploma is vahd in the public schools of the state, while a city 
high school certificate authorizes the holder to teach only in the 
school imder the supervision of the board issuing the certifi- 
cate." 2 

Vermont. — "There is a condition imposed in prescription of 
courses for high schools that only coUege graduates shall be em- 
ployed." ' 

Virginia. — " Persons desiring to teach in the public high 
schools, or in schools where the higher branches are to be taught, 
shall be examined on such higher branches as they may be re- 
quired to teach ; provided, however, that the graduates of colleges 
and universities of approved standing and reputation shall be 
permitted, without further examination, to teach in such schools 
the branches in which they have graduated." ^ 

Washington. — "City high school certificates (in cities having 

^ School Law, 1909, p. 4, Sec. 1767. 

^ Letter from State Superintendent A. C. Nelson. 

' From the office of the State Superintendent. 

* Regulations of the State Board of Education, 1907, p. 126. 



228 TEAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

one hundred or more teachers) shall be granted only to applicants 
who pass satisfactorily the examination required for grammar 
certificates, and in addition thereto sustain a satisfactory exam- 
ination in civil government, physical geography, elementary 
physics, algebra, botany, and such other branches as the board of 
directors may prescribe." ^ 

West Virginia. — "Applicants for teachers' certificates shaU be 
required to pass an examination in orthography, reading, penman- 
ship, arithmetic, English grammar and language, physiology 
and hygiene. United States history, state history, geography, 
civil government, agriculture, and theory and art of teaching ; 
and appHcants for certificates good in the advanced grades of 
graded schools or high schools shall, in addition to the foregoing, 
be required to pass examinations in general history and single 
entry bookkeeping. Applicants for high school and primary 
teachers' certificates shaU pass an examination in such other 
branches as the State Board of Education may prescribe." ^ 

Wisconsin. — "High school teachers should not neglect or 
fail to obtain the necessary and proper legal quaUfications. With- 
out such qualification, no valid contract can be made with the high 
school board, nor is the teacher entitled to pay from the public funds. 
Under no circumstances should the work of teaching be entered 
upon before the proper legal qualification has been obtained. 

"Any high school board employing a teacher without legal quali- 
fication renders the high school district liable to loss of state aid. 

"Any one of the following named documents is considered a 
sufficient legal and educational qualification for the position of 
principal or assistant in any high school : — 

1. "The Wisconsin unlimited state certificate. 

2. "A diploma granted upon the completion of a regular col- 
legiate course in the University of Wisconsin, or upon the com- 

1 School Laws, 1909, Art. 5, Sec. 4, p. 90. 

2 Ibid., 1909, Sec. 82. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 229 

pletion of the full course of any Wisconsin state normal school, 
if countersigned by the state superintendent of Wisconsin. 

3. "A special license good for one year, issued by the state 
superintendent to the holder of either of the above diplomas. 

4. "A special license good for two years, issued by the state 
superintendent and based upon a diploma from a state normal 
school located outside of Wisconsin whose courses of study are fully 
and fairly equivalent to the corresponding advanced courses in 
the Wisconsin state normal schools. 

5. "A special Ucense good for two years, issued by the state 
superintendent and based upon a diploma from a university or 
coUege located outside of Wisconsin whose courses of study are 
fuUy and fairly equivalent to the corresponding course of study 
in the Wisconsin State University. 

6. "A special hcense good for two years, issued by the state 
superintendent, based upon an unlimited state certificate, granted 
to the appUcant by legal authority in another state. 

7. "An unUmited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
a college or university in Wisconsin whose courses of study are 
fully and fairly equivalent to corresponding courses in the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. The holder of this diploma must have 
successfully taught for at least one year in the pubhc schools of 
Wisconsin, after graduation, before such certificate can be issued. 

8. "An unKmited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
a college or university outside of Wisconsin whose regular and col- 
legiate courses of study are fuUy and fairly equivalent to corre- 
sponding courses in the University of Wisconsin. The holder of 
this diploma must have successfully taught for at least two years 
in the public schools of Wisconsin, after graduation, before such 
certificate can be issued. 

9. "An unlimited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
a state normal school outside of Wisconsin whose courses of study 
are fuUy and fairly equivalent to the advanced or four-year courses 
of study prescribed for the Wisconsin state normal schools. The 



230 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

holder of such diploma must have successfully taught for at least 
two years in the pubUc schools of Wisconsin, after graduation, 
before such certificate can be issued. 

10. "A special Ucense will be issued by the state superintendent 
when recommended by the state board of examiners, after said 
board has passed favorably on the papers, documents, credentials, 
and testimonials furnished by the officers of the institution from 
which the apphcant has graduated, and such other persons as may 
be named or called upon for reference as to learning, good moral 
character, abihty to teach, ability to govern, and ability to con- 
duct and supervise a school." ^ 

Wyoming. — "The applicant shall pass an examination in all 
the subjects required for the second-class certificate (the common 
school branches, rhetoric and composition, and theory and practice 
of teaching) with the following additional subjects: elementary 
algebra, English and American literature, elementary psychology, 
physical geography, and any two or more of the following subjects : 
plane geometry, botany, zoology, chemistry, general history, Latin, 
German, political economy, bookkeeping, shorthand, securing an 
average of not less than 80 per cent, and not falHng below 60 per 
cent in any one branch. An apphcant for this class of certificate 
must have had not less than one school year of successful experi- 
ence in teaching." ^ 

The school laws of the different states indicate that, 
with the exception of the states before mentioned, no 
legal distinction has been made between the qualifica- 
tions required for teachers in the high school and those 
required for teachers in the elementary school. In many 
of the states a certificate of any kind legally qualifies a 

^ Manual of the Free High Schools of Wisconsin, 1910, p. 4. 
^ School Laws, 1909, chap. 33, Sec. i, p. 123. Enacted 1909. 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 23 1 

teacher to serve in a high school. The fact that teachers 
possessing only certificates of lower grade are seldom 
found in the high school is due not to legal disability 
but to public opinion. 

In about two thirds of the states certificates to teach in 
schools of all kinds are issued to holders of diplomas from 
state normal schools or colleges of accepted standing.^ 
This fact shows a tendency to depend more upon training 
than upon examination as a test of competency. In 
some cases a specified amount of pedagogical training is 
required, in others no requirements of this kind exist. 

From the foregoing facts, several things are evident : 
first, that in the certification of teachers there has been 
until recently little or no discrimination in the minds of 
the certificating authorities between the qualifications 
required for the work of the teacher in the elementary 
grades and those necessary for the work in the high 
schools; second, that with the exception of California no 
state has established a standard of qualifications for its 
high school teachers that is commensurate with the stand- 
ard given in the Report of the Committee of Seventeen, 
which may be taken as the best official expression of 

^ Some sort of legal recognition is given such diplomas in~ Arizona, 
California, Colorada, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Mary- 
land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Ne- 
braska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South CaroUna, South Dakota, Teimessee, 
Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
Wyoming. 



232 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

opinion upon the subject ; third, that except in the case 
of CaHfornia, no standard has been established which can 
be regarded as really professional ; fourth, that in most 
of the states not only does no such standard exist, but no 
clear purpose or plan of establishing such a standard in 
the future is evident. The result is that the high school 
teacher cannot now feel that, legally considered, he be- 
longs to a profession, nor does there appear much ground 
for hope that he can make such a claim in the immedi- 
ate future. It is probably true that the exigencies of a 
new and undeveloped country have made these condi- 
tions excusable in at least a part of the past; but it 
would seem that the state should now squarely face the 
issue and place the work of the teachers in the high 
school upon a truly professional basis. 

The Qualifications of High School Teachers. — De- 
tailed information concerning the training of the teachers 
who are now at work in the high schools of the United 
States is not available, but their scholastic qualifications 
are doubtless much better than might be indicated by 
the legal provisions for certification. In the larger and 
better schools are many teachers who, to good academic 
training in the beginning, have added years of suc- 
cessful experience, and they are consequently well 
equipped for their work. Such teachers are occasionally 
found in the smaller schools also. Taking the country 
over, it is probably true that not more than fifty per 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 233 

cent of the high school teachers are either graduates of 
a four-year college course, or have training equivalent 
to that required for such graduation; and that a much 
smaller number, probably not more than five per cent, 
have adequate pedagogical training or would be able to 
meet the requirements presented in the Report of the 
Committee of Seventeen.^ 
Professor Thorndike gives the following statistics : — 

"The number of years that the man engaged in secondary school 
work spent as a student in high school, normal school, college, or 
other institution beyond the elementary school, ranges from o to 13, 
or possibly higher in a few cases. There is no close adherence to 
any one type the country over, though 8 years is the most common 
length. The median length is 7 years. Of 100 men 10 have had 
less than 4 years beyond the elementary school, 45 have had from 
4 up to 8 years, 30 have had 8 years, and 15 have had 9 years or 
more. Three fifths have had 6, 7, or 8 years. . . . The length 
of education beyond the elementary school in the case of women 
teachers ranges from o to 1 2 years, or possibly higher in a few cases. 
The typical condition is 8 years. There are somewhat more women 
who have had 8 years or more than those who have had 7 years or 
less. Of 100 women, 6 or 7 have had less than 4 years beyond 
the elementary school, 40 or 41 have had from 4 up to 8 years, 
41 to 42 have had 8 years, and 11 or 12 have had 9 years or more." ' 

Certain parts of the country, however, especially the 
New England states, New York and California, probably 

1 See Dexter, E. G., Fourth Yearbook for the Scientific Study of 
Education, Vol. I, p. 61. 

2 Thorndike, E. L., The Teaching Sta£E of Secondary Schools in the 
United States. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1909, 
No. 4, p. 14. 



234 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

have a somewhat larger percentage of college-trained 
teachers in the high school. The rules governing the 
first high school established at Boston in 182 1 provided 
" that it be required of the masters and ushers as a 
necessary qualification that they shall have been regu- 
larly educated at some university," and although this 
rule has not always been observed, there has ever3rwhere 
been a strong traditional sentiment in favor of it. 

The Need of Higher Standards. — Comparison of 
American standards of certification with those of Ger- 
many, and comparison of the actual qualifications of our 
teachers with those of Germany, or even with those out- 
lined in the report of the Committee of Seventeen, shows 
the low standards of training that actually prevail among 
us. Germany insists upon having scholarly, well-trained 
teachers in her higher schools because they are the leaders 
of the future university students, who in turn become the 
leaders of the nation, and must, therefore, have the 
best training possible. The same reason exists for us, 
and also the added reason that these teachers are the 
trainers of that vastly larger number of boys and girls 
who do not reach the college, but who become the strength 
and support of the communities in which they live. 
They, too, should have the benefit of the best possible 
training. Detailed evidence of the need of better quali- 
fied teachers is not necessary here. That it is strongly 
felt by educators everywhere is indicated by the fact of 



THE CERTIFICATION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS 235 

its emphasis in almost every serious discussion of means 
for the improvement of our schools. Well- trained 
teachers in every school would increase tremendously 
the efficiency and productive power of existing schools, 
and they would be an invaluable aid in working out some 
problems of school organization which are pressing for 
solution. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Institutions for the Training of Teachers 

As indicated in a previous chapter the secondary schools 
have furnished the only school training for a small per 
cent of the teachers in our secondary schools. The insti- 
tutions of most importance in this work, however, are the 
normal schools, colleges, and universities ; and within the 
colleges and universities, the departments and schools 
of education. In a few instances, secondary schools 
cooperate with the college in giving opportunities for 
practice teaching. 

Normal Schools. — The normal schools of the country, 
the first of which was founded in Massachusetts in 1839, 
were established primarily for the training of teachers for 
the elementary schools. The ordinary normal school 
course, which provides work extending only one or two 
years beyond the high school, has never been regarded 
by thoughtful educators as furnishing satisfactory train- 
ing for secondary school work ; but many normal school 
graduates have become high school teachers either 
without additional training or after having finished a 
college or university course. 

236 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 237 

The College as a Whole. — As in Germany, so in the 
United States, the college and the university taken as a 
whole have exerted a larger influence in the training of 
secondary teachers than any special professional institu- 
tion established either within or without them. It is 
only within the last two decades that anything more 
than the usual academic college education has been con- 
sidered necessary for the secondary teacher. The best 
ideals have always required this much, however. The 
teachers in the Latin grammar schools were graduates of 
the English universities or of Harvard or Yale ; the acad- 
emies sought college-trained men as teachers ; and the 
same is true of the best class of high schools. The 
academic college course is now and always has been 
regarded as more important than any sort of purely 
pedagogical training. 

Departments and Schools of Education. — There came 
a time, however, when it was thought desirable to add to 
this general college course, or, at least, to include in it, 
some definite pedagogical training. This has been ac- 
complished through departments of education established 
in colleges or through teachers' colleges or schools of 
education established either in connection with colleges 
and universities or apart from them. The history of this 
movement is relatively recent. Professor Luckey ^ says 

^ Luckey, G. W. A., Professional Training of Secondary Teachers, 
chap. IV. 



238 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

that up to 1890, work in education, looking particularly 
towards the training of secondary teachers, was estab- 
lished in the following-named institutions : Michigan 
University, 1879 ; The Johns Hopkins University 
(graduate work), 1881 ; Cornell University, and Ohio 
University (Athens), 1886; Columbia University 
(Teachers College) and Northwestern University, 1888 ; 
Clark University (graduate work), 1889; New York 
University and Illinois University, 1890. From 1890 
to 1900 about twenty colleges and universities were 
added to the number, and the Report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education for 1909 contains a 
list of 171 colleges and universities in which there is at 
least one professor of pedagogy. This does not include 
the state normal schools which have organized a four- 
year course of study following a four-year preparatory 
course, thus becoming really normal colleges. It is in 
these institutions and others similar to them that the 
secondary teachers of the United States may now receive 
their training. The rapid increase in their number indi- 
cates the growth of interest in the professional training 
of secondary teachers. 

The department of education in the college is itself a 
product of evolution. In the beginning a course of lec- 
tures on some phase of pedagogy was often given by a 
member of some other college department or by a practi- 
cal schoolman from the outside. The work in education 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 239 

was frequently regarded as an adjunct to the department 
of psychology or philosophy. As it developed, an inde- 
pendent department was established for it on a par with 
other departments of the college or university, and with 
its further development additional members were added 
to the instructing body. In most of the colleges and in 
many of the universities of the country this is the status 
of the work in education at the present time. 

The teachers' colleges or schools of education or colleges 
of education, as they are variously called, are, in most 
cases, an outgrowth of the college department of edu- 
cation. Teachers College, Columbia University, was 
started as an independent institution and later attached 
to the university. A few institutions that may now fairly 
be ranked as teachers' colleges are simply normal schools 
that have extended their course of study to four years, 
as in New York, Indiana, and Iowa. As the work in edu- 
cation develops there appears to be a tendency to estab- 
lish, in connection with the larger universities, schools of 
education, ranking with the colleges or schools of law, 
medicine, and engineering. In such cases the general 
academic work of students is usually carried on in the 
college of arts and sciences, and the distinctively profes- 
sional work is done in the school of education. There are 
now such schools at Columbia University, New York 
University, Harvard, Syracuse, Cincinnati, Chicago, 
Leland Stanford Jimior, Ohio State, Indiana, Illinois, 



240 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, Missouri, Colorado, Arkan- 
sas, Wisconsin, Nevada, and Wyoming, and the number 
increases with each year. 

The theoretical professional work offered in these de- 
partments and schools of education, as shown in their 
announcements, includes the subjects of psychology, 
educational psychology, genetic psychology, the psychol- 
ogy of adolescence, principles of education, philosophy 
of education, history of education, secondary education, 
school management, school supervision, school administra- 
tion, foreign school systems, school hygiene, sociology, and 
special study of the subjects that the student expects to 
teach along with the methods of teaching them. The 
subjects that are most common and that are required 
in the greatest number of cases are psychology, educa- 
tional psychology, history of education, principles of edu- 
cation, observation, and methods of teaching the different 
subjects. A total of nine hours per week throughout one 
year may be regarded as approximately the amount of 
work given in the five or six subjects that are regarded as 
most necessary. The other subjects are offered as elec- 
tives. The work is usually distributed over a period of 
at least two years. 

The practical professional training, or observation and 
practice work, given in departments and schools of educa- 
tion is very different in different institutions, and it is 
developing rapidly from year to year. In some cases 



INSTITUTIONS FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 24 1 

there is neither observation nor teaching by students. 
In other cases there is observation, either with or without 
direction by the department, but no teaching. In still 
other cases there is carefully directed observation and 
a few hours of teaching. And finally, there are a few 
places where systematic observation is followed by equally 
systematic teaching for a semester or a year. Both 
observation and teaching are carried on, sometimes in 
public schools over which the department has no control, 
sometimes in schools over which it has partial control, 
and sometimes in a school that is wholly under the direc- 
tion of the department. Relatively few departments or 
schools of education have schools of their own. Notable 
exceptions are Columbia University and Chicago Uni- 
versity, which have large private schools. The fact that 
the patrons of these schools pay high tuition fees and ex- 
pect superior teaching in return makes it impracticable 
for students to do much teaching in them. They are 
more valuable for observation than for practice. Mis- 
souri University, on the other hand, has a practice school 
which is used for both observation and cadet teaching. 
Harvard, Brown, Indiana, Ohio State, Colorado, Oregon, 
Washington, CaHfornia, Texas, and some others, use the 
local pubhc schools for both observation and practical 
teaching. In most cases students are admitted to obser- 
vation and practice teaching in the junior or senior year. 
Indiana requires practice teaching at least three hours per 



242 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY . SCHOOLS 

week for twelve weeks, and seniors are admitted. Cali- 
fornia requires practice teaching at least four semester 
hours and graduation is a prerequisite. 

The highest standard is maintained by Brown Univer- 
sity, which admits only graduates to systematic observa- 
tion and cadet teaching in the local high schools. Two 
types of student teachers are recognized. Those of the 
first type, four in nimiber, are received as half time 
teachers who teach for one year under the careful super- 
vision of the professor of education and a supervising 
teacher. The latter is a member of the high school corps 
who is recognized as a superior teacher. He is paid a 
nominal sum for his supervisory services and is given the 
privilege of attending certain university courses free of 
cost. The student teacher is paid $400 for his year's 
work. The second type of student teacher is also a 
graduate. He is not given classes to teach regularly, 
but is required to give at least one hundred and twenty- 
four hours in observation, assistance to the regular 
teacher, the instruction of individual pupils, and the 
teaching of a class more or less irregularly. He receives 
no financial compensation. The teachers of both types 
are required to carry on a certain amount of university 
work under the direction of the department of education 
at the same time that they are doing the practical work 
in the schools. The guiding principles of the work at 
Brown University are given as follows: — ■ 



INSTITUTIONS POR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 243 

"i. The practice teaching must be under actual classroom 
conditions, and must cover a long period, not less than one year. 

"2. The practice teaching must be open only to graduate stu- 
dents who have previously pursued courses in education, and not 
to undergraduate students. 

"3. The practice teaching must be a part of the university 
work, and must count towards a degree as laboratory work in 
other departments counts towards a degree. 

"4. The pupils in classes under student teachers must have 
conditions for their work at least as good as those under the aver- 
age teacher in the school. 

"5. The work must be so arranged that it shall be of advantage 
to the general system of the city schools, to the individual schools, 
to the student teachers, and to the university." ^ 

The above accounts of professional training are not 
designed to be exhaustive,^ but they may be taken as 
typical of what is being done in the various institutions, 
and they show the generally undeveloped state of this 
phase of the training work. 

^ Proceedings of the National Society of College Teachers of Educa- 
tion, 1909. Article by W. B. Jacobs. 

2 For a more complete study of the professional work given in colleges 
and universities, the reader is referred to "The Present Training of 
Teachers for Secondary Schools," by E. G. Dexter, in the Report of the 
Committee of Seventeen; to "Observation and Practice Teaching in 
College and University Departments of Education," by F. E. Farrington, 
and others in Proceedings of the National Society of College Teachers 
of Education, 1909 ; arid to " The Relation of the Department of Edu- 
cation to Other Departments in Colleges and Universities," by F. E. 
Bolton, in Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. XIX, Nos. 2-3. December, 1906 ; 
March, 1907. 



CHAPTER IX 

Who is Responsible? 

In a matter of such great and general importance as 
the proper training of teachers for the pubHc high schools, 
many institutions and many individuals must share re- 
sponsibihty. Those upon whom the burden falls in this 
case are the state, individual teachers, the colleges and 
universities, and the schools. 

The Responsibility of the State. — Early in their his- 
tory the American colonies accepted the principle that 
the education of their children must not be left to indi- 
vidual or philanthropic [initiative, but is a duty devolv- 
ing upon the state. Because it is the creator and also 
the beneficiary of the public school system, the state 
is responsible for the standard of qualifications of its 
teachers. Through its system of public education a 
nation develops, controls, and perpetuates its ideals and 
its policies. In a nation's schools is reflected the nation's 
life. The class schools of England and Germany can ex- 
ist only in a countryVhere there are marked class distinc- 
tions. The democratic schools of the United States can 
exist only in a democratic society. State schools are not 

244 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 245 

founded in a spirit of philanthropy or for the purpose of 
promoting the welfare of the individual, though, doubt- 
less, both of these ends are served ; they are established 
that the state may possess intelligent, patriotic citizens 
who will serve its interests wisely and loyally. As 
creator and beneficiary, the state is responsible not only 
for what the schools have been and are, but also for what 
they are to be ; and since the teacher is the most impor- 
tant factor in determining the character of the school, the 
teacher's quaHfications lie at the very heart of the state's 
responsibility. 

Having committed itself to the policy of education at 
public expense, the state is responsible for such a develop- 
ment of the public school system as will produce not 
simply the largest returns, but the greatest possible per 
cent of returns on the money invested. Doubtless the 
public schools as they exist are abundantly worth their 
cost; nevertheless they can be made to yield not only 
larger returns as a whole, but a much larger per cent of 
returns on the investment. To do this will require more 
intelligent care and the investment of more money, but 
as a mere business proposition it should be done. Under 
such circumstances nothing except inability to secure the 
needed funds would deter a wise, aggressive business man 
from developing his plant. If the state fails, it is not 
showing good business sense, and it is responsible for the 
loss entailed. This principle is applicable at every point 



246 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

at which the possibility of improvement is shown, hence 
it appHes to the training of teachers. The state is just 
as much responsible for the development of the highest 
possible efi&ciency in its system of education as it was for 
the establishment of the system itself. 

Again, the state is responsible because it is the only 
authority that is competent to deal with the situation. 
The effective establishment of an adequate professional 
standard for the certification of high school teachers must 
ultimately depend upon legal enactment. In a democ- 
racy, true enough, it is useless, even when it is not impos- 
sible, to pass laws which are too far in advance of public 
opinion ; but progressive laws enacted by the leaders of 
the people often serve to crystallize public sentiment in 
their support, at the same time that they make increased 
demands upon public service. At all events, there can, 
in this case, be no well-founded progress that is not based 
upon legal enactment. A considerable number of indi- 
viduals may voluntarily make the desired preparation, 
but there will surely be some, and probably many, who 
will not. They can get on without the expenditure of 
time, money, and effort in preparation. Why should they 
make it ? Who is prepared to say that they are wholly 
at fault ? They have fulfilled the demands of society and 
the state. On the other hand, those who prepare them- 
selves well for the work soon become painfully conscious 
of the fact that they are given no advantages which are 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 247 

at all commensurate with the additional preparation 
that they have made, and they become justly dissatisfied. 
There can be no profession of teaching until the state 
estabUshes a standard of certification that is worthy of 
the profession which it seeks to establish. The higher 
standard can be actually realized only through the 
assistance of the strong arm of the law. 

In the present case there seems to be special responsi- 
bility because the teacher is the strategic point in the 
whole educational enterprise. Care and money invested 
in improving his qualifications will bring larger returns 
than if invested in any other part of the business. In a 
system of public education as loosely organized as ours, 
much more depends upon the efficiency and power of ini- 
tiative of the teacher than is the case in a closely organ- 
ized and supervised system like that of Germany. To 
improve the efficiency of the teacher is at once to improve 
the quality of his own teaching, to avoid some of the 
errors due to our present organization, or lack of it, and 
to provide a helper who can be of material assistance in 
working out some needed reforms. A competent teacher 
can overcome the disadvantages of bad system or no sys- 
tem. On the other hand, no amount of system or or- 
ganization can flourish in the hands of incompetent 
teachers. From whatever point of view the subject is 
regarded, it is undoubtedly true that more speedy and 
substantial results wiU follow from the improvement of 



248 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

the teaching force than from anything else. Better 
quaUfied teachers are needed to secure better work un- 
der existing conditions, to help devise better plans, and 
to assist in carrying out reforms when they are under- 
taken. 

The responsibility of the state in this matter seems to 
be further increased by the fact that the institutional 
means for the training of high school teachers are already 
in existence and are ready to be organized for this purpose. 
It is not necessary to create new institutions or even, in 
many cases, to increase largely the expenses of those 
already existing. These institutions are the colleges, 
the universities, and the secondary schools, especially 
the public high schools. Under the authority and leader- 
ship of the state it should not be difficult to bring about a 
cooperative effort on the part of these institutions, which 
would effectively accomplish the desired end. A plan of 
procedure is outlined on later pages. 

It must be freely granted, however, that in many states 
the establishment and maintenance of a standard of quali- 
fications equal to that required of teachers in the Prussian 
higher schools, or to that which leading American edu- 
cators would accept as satisfactory for teachers in our 
high schools, would now be impossible. Either public 
sentiment would not accept the standard, or facilities are 
wanting for the training of teachers, or salaries are so 
low that no teacher can afford to make such preparation. 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 249 

Where such conditions exist, it would, of course, be folly 
to adopt at once an impossible policy and place on the 
statute books a law concerning the certification of high 
school teachers, which could not be carried into effect. 
The best that can be done under such circumstances is 
to recognize the unsatisfactory conditions and adopt a 
standard that is consistent with those conditions. In the 
formulation of such a standard, however, it is always 
possible to make it a step towards a higher one, one that 
would be satisfactory. Not infrequently it is possible 
to adopt a higher standard, with the provision that it 
shall not go into effect until such a date as will enable 
every one concerned to meet its conditions. Teachers 
who are already in the service can be left undisturbed, 
and the new provisions be made to apply to those only 
who enter after this specified future date. The one im- 
portant fact in all cases is that state legislation on the 
subject is a crying necessity ; and if the present unsatis- 
factory standards in the work of the high schools are not 
to continue, legislators must face the need squarely and 
either provide for the immediate adoption of a really 
professional standard for teachers, or for the adoption of 
standards lower than this which shall, nevertheless, be a 
definite step in the desired direction. To do less than this 
is to ignore the need entirely. 

The Responsibility of the Individual Teacher. — But 
even in those cases in which the state either cannot or 



250 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

will not provide for the establishment of an adequate 
standard of qualifications in the certification of high 
school teachers, the situation should not be considered 
hopeless. If it is true that Germany is a land of strong, 
centralized authority and paternalistic government; it 
is no less true that the United States is the country of 
freedom and of individual and institutional enterprise. 
That which is handed down from above in the former^ 
can grow up from below in the latter. Individuals and 
institutions have opportunities and responsibilities. The 
individual teacher or prospective teacher who sees the 
need can do no more patriotic service than to give him- 
self the training which his vocation requires, even though 
the state does not demand it of him and neither pays him 
well for his work nor protects him from the rival claims 
of those whose training is much inferior. Fortunately 
many teachers are now doing this to the limit of the op- 
portunities offered for such training, and an increasingly 
large number will do it if the needs of the work can be 
properly brought to their attention and if opportunities 
can be provided for such training. In a cause so worthy, 
it seems entirely in order to appeal to the patriotism 
and professional ambition of individuals, even though 
some hardship may seem to be involved. To the con- 
sciousness that really effective service has been rendered, 
there will in time usually be added an appreciable gain of 
a more material character. The capable man or woman 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 25 1 

who prepares himself well for his work is pretty sure to 
find reasonably satisfactory promotion awaiting him. 

The Responsibility of College and University. — Upon 
colleges and universities there rests a peculiar responsi- 
bility in this matter. If the state has already adopted a 
satisfactory standard in the certification of high school 
teachers, the burden of providing the necessary training 
falls upon these institutions ; and, because of the great 
number of teachers who leave the work each year, that 
burden is not a light one. It would probably tax to the 
utmost the present capacity of every college in every 
state in the union to turn out each year enough properly 
equipped candidates for the position of high school 
teacher to take the places of those who, for various 
reasons, leave the work. In many states the existing 
equipment of the higher institutions is totally insufficient 
for this purpose. The success of the state in carrying 
out its policy is absolutely dependent upon the efficiency 
of the higher institutions in providing facilities for the 
necessary training. 

If, on the other hand, the state has not adopted a satis- 
factory standard of training for the certification of high 
school teachers, scarcely less responsibility rests upon the 
college and university. In the interest of scholarship in 
general and of their own individual students in particular, 
it is their duty to foster all means that tend to the better 
preparation of future college students ; and nothing will 



252 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

contribute as much to that end as providing every pre- 
paratory school with well-trained teachers. As leaders 
of public sentiment it is their duty to favor measures 
for the general public good, especially in the field of edu- 
cation. And as the only institutions which can do the 
work required in the proper training of teachers, it is 
their privilege and, to the limit of their ability, their duty 
to show in advance their willingness and readiness to co- 
operate in the execution of a movement that lies so close 
to the public welfare. How can ambitious individuals 
secure the training to which they aspire if the higher in- 
stitutions do not provide for it? And how can prac- 
tical-minded state legislators be expected to provide for 
a satisfactory standard of training for certification if 
they are confronted with the fact that the educational 
institutions of the country, and especially of their own 
state, are not equipped to furnish such training ? 

The Responsibility of School Authorities. — In the 
development of a proper standard of qualifications and of 
certification of high school teachers, the school authori- 
ties — principals, superintendents, and governing boards 
— have an exceedingly important part to play. In the 
first place, they should express practically, in the choice of 
their teachers, a preference for those who have had good 
training. As a matter of fact this is not now done in any 
satisfactory manner. In many cases there is no insist- 
ence upon college training or its equivalent, the emphasis 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 253 

being placed upon experience regardless of whether it 
has been in the high school or in the grades. In other 
cases the applicant for a position must have had college 
training and experience in teaching in some other school, 
but no importance is attached to special pedagogical 
training. In relatively few cases do employers of high 
school teachers show any considerable regard for training 
which involves both the academic and the pedagogical 
side. There are several reasons for this state of affairs. 
Teachers are often selected by members of a school board 
who cannot, in many cases, be expected to have sufi&cient 
knowledge of what constitutes good training. Unfor- 
tunately the same thing may be said about some superin- 
tendents and principals. In other cases the pedagogical 
training that has thus far been available has not com- 
mended itself as being very valuable. In still other cases 
the value of such training, when it is of the right kind, 
has been fully recognized, but the scarcity of applicants 
possessing it is so great that it cannot be demanded of all 
applicants. The ignorance of employers, the unsatisfac- 
tory character of certain forms of pedagogical training, 
and the scarcity of applicants who have been well trained, 
have combined to produce this lack of practical interest 
on the part of school authorities. When, in the selection 
of a teacher for the high school, the same preference is 
given to the applicant who has good pedagogical training, 
as is now usually shown the normal school graduate who 



254 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

applies for a position in the grades, the proper pedagogical 
training of high school teachers will have been given a 
great stimulus. The burden of this attainment rests 
upon the authorities of the high school. 

In the second place the school authorities are respon- 
sible for cooperative assistance in the training of high 
school teachers. A certain class of high schools, usually 
the smaller ones, have for years been taking as teachers 
young college graduates who are innocent of both experi- 
ence and pedagogical training. The opportunity thus 
afforded these young men and women is not one of train- 
ing for their work under competent direction, but rather 
that of showing what they can do on their own account. 
If they fail, there is none to help. If, by dint of indus- 
trious experimentation and much floundering, they suc- 
ceed, well and good. In either case, however, the pupils 
are innocent sufferers to greater or less degree. There 
are other schools, usually the larger ones, which are not 
willing to take these young graduates, but are ever on 
the watch to discover and attract the more successful 
ones from the smaller schools. Colleges complain be- 
cause the pupils from the high school are not well 
trained. The high schools reply that they have been 
taught by the teachers sent to them with the strongest 
college recommendations. It seems not to have occurred 
to either party that a better means of solving their 
respective difficulties, which are very real on both 



WHO IS RESPONSIBLE ? 255 

sides, would be to unite in a cooperative effort for the 
theoretical and practical training of teachers under com- 
petent supervision before they are thrown out to sink or 
swim alone. Many a teacher, who now fails wholly or in 
part, could be saved to the ranks of really good teachers 
if he received proper assistance from the principal at the 
start. If the beginner could commence his work, not 
only with this assistance from the principal, but also with 
careful criticism and supervision of his work by a univer- 
sity department of education, the chances of his attaining 
a much higher degree of success would be immeasurably 
increased. Where there is opportunity for such coopera- 
tive effort on the part of the university departments of 
education and local high schools, the latter could render 
an inestimable benefit to the cause of high school educa- 
tion by providing an opportunity for a certain amount of 
teaching by candidates under the close supervision of 
those who are competent to assist them in successful prac- 
tical efforts based upon well-considered theory. The 
experience of Germany in this matter should not be 
permitted to escape our notice without the most careful 
consideration. Tentative experiments along this line in 
a few American high schools seem to be meeting with 
such success as to warrant their extension to other in- 
stitutions. 



CHAPTER X 

A Desirable Standard of Training 

We have thus far spoken of the need of a higher stand- 
ard of qualifications for our high school teachers without 
special reference to what that standard should be. What 
should it be? What are the qualifications which it is 
right and reasonable to expect such teachers to possess? 
First, of course, a certain native ability and adaptability. 
These are fundamental, but it is not the business of the 
state or the institution to create them. It is their busi- 
ness to discover them where they exist and then to train 
them to the greatest practicable efficiency. Only less 
important is it that those who do not possess these 
qualities should be kept out of the work of teaching and 
guided into a field in which they can be more successful. 
For the state and the institution, the training is the 
important factor in this question. Of what should it 
consist ? 

The Report of the Committee of Seventeen. — An 
answer to this question has already been formulated in 
the Report of the Committee of Seventeen, a committee 
appointed by the National Educational Association. As 

256 



A DESIRABLE STANDARD OF TRAINING 257 

the most authoritative expression of opinion on the sub- 
ject this report may be taken as the point of departure for 
the discussion of the question. 

The following are the joint recommendations of the 
Committee of Seventeen on the professional preparation 
of high school teachers. 

"The committee on the preparation of high school teachers 
recommend : — 
"I. That the academic preparation include the following 
elements : — 

"A. A detailed and specialized study of the subjects to be 
taught. The program of studies selected by each 
student should include work in subjects outside of 
those in which he is making special preparation, 
sufficient to give some insight into the different 
fields of knowledge and to avoid the dangers of over- 
specialization. 

"B. One or more subjects from a group including history, 
economics, and sociology, which wiU give the teacher 
a proper outlook upon the social aspects of educa- 
tion. 

"C. A course in general psychology and at least one from 
a group of subjects including history of philosophy, 
logic, and ethics, which will give the teacher a proper 
outlook upon education as the development of the 
individual. 
"II. That definite study be given to each of the following sub- 
jects, either in separate courses or in such combina- 
tions as convenience or necessity demands : — 

"A. History of education. 

1. History of general education. 

2. History of secondary education. 



258 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

"B. Educational psychology with emphasis on adolescence. 

"C. The principles of education, including the study of 
educational aims, values, and processes. Courses 
in general method are included under this heading. 

"D. Special methods in the secondary school subjects that 
the student expects to teach. 

"E. Organization and management of schools and school 
systems. 

"F. School hygiene. 
"III. That opportunity for observation and practice teaching 
with secondary pupils be given. 

" The committee recognizes the difficulties involved in this 
recommendation, but believes that they are not 
insurmountable. Each of the following plans has 
proved successful in some instances : — 

"A. The maintenance of a school of secondary school 
grade that may be used for observation and prac- 
tice. 

"B. Affiliation with public or private high schools so situ- 
ated geographically that practice teaching can be 
done without interfering with other work of the 
college course. 

"In addition to the above, the committee suggests that 
where competent critical supervision is possible, cadet 
teaching, in schools more remotely situated, may be 
attempted. In such cases, a teacher's diploma 
might be granted after a year's successful work as 
a cadet teacher. 
"IV. That the minimum requirements for a secondary school 
teacher be graduation from a coUege maintaining 
a four-year course and requiring four years' high 
school work for admission, or from an institution 
having equivalent requirements for admission and 
giving equivalent academic scholarship. 



A DESIRABLE STANDARD OE TRAINING 259 

"A year of graduate work divided between academic and 
professional subjects is desirable. Discussions of 
the relative value of coUege and normal schools for 
secondary school teachers are to be found in the 
references below. (See p. 538 of Proceedings of the 
National Educational Association.) 
"V. That the study of subjects mentioned under II be distributed 
through the last two years of the college course. 
" The proportional amount of time given to these subjects 
will vary with local conditions, but an irreducible 
minimum is one eighth of the college course. They 
should be preceded or accompanied by the subjects 
mentioned in I, B, C. Recommendations as to the 
amount of time given to particular courses will be 
found in several of the accompanying papers." ^ 

In the training of the high school teacher there are 
four factors to be considered : (i) The length of the 
training period; (2) general academic training ; (3) theo- 
retical professional training; (4) practical professional 
training. The five headings in the Committee's report 
may be reduced to three. Points I and IV belong under 
general academic training ; points II and V, under theo- 
retical professional training ; and point III, under prac- 
tical professional training. 

The Period of Training. — Extended observations of 
the work of high school teachers has led the writer to be- 
lieve that the minimum satisfactory standard of general 
academic training should be the equivalent of that 

^ Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1907, pp. 521- 
668. Also published separately. 



26o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

required for graduation from the four-year college course, 
together with one additional year of combined theoretical 
and practical professional study. An examination of the 
Prussian system in operation has served to confirm the 
belief. The first reason for this conviction is general in 
its nature. It lies in the fact that the work of the high 
school teacher is just as important for the welfare of the 
individual and of the state as the work of the physician 
or the lawyer ; it requires ability of equally high grade, 
and he should have just as good talent and training. In 
the attempts to establish a satisfactory standard of 
training for the lawyer and physician, no one thinks 
of less than five years of training from the time the candi- 
date enters college. The shortest of combined courses 
provides for this time, and many young men actually 
spend three or four years in the professional school after 
the four years of college life. The young physician often 
adds one or two years of hospital experience. The work 
of the high school teacher should be put upon such a 
basis that it will rank with that of the learned professions 
and be entitled to the respect of those who practice them. 
A second and more fundamental reason lies in the 
fact that the work of the high school teacher requires all 
the general culture, personal power, and professional 
facility that such a course of training can give. In the 
school and in the community he stands legitimately as the 
representative of general literary and scientific culture. 



A DESIRABLE STANDARD OF TRAINING 26 1 

He should not dishonor the spirit which he represents. 
He should not only have a scholarly acquaintance with 
the subjects that he teaches, but he should have such 
knowledge of other subjects as will give him a broad out- 
look upon life and the whole field of human effort. In 
scarcely any other vocation is there such an opportunity 
for the exercise of great permanent influence through 
purely personal power. He should have time and oppor- 
tunity for the training and development of that power. 
The body of purely professional information which every 
teacher should have before entering upon his work is of 
such amount and character as may well occupy part of his 
thought for two or three years. It cannot be swallowed 
whole with profit, it must be chewed and assimilated. 
The candidate needs, in addition, time and opportunity 
for serving a carefully supervised apprenticeship before 
he assumes the burdens of an entire school on his own 
account. It is to be regretted that the Committee of 
Seventeen did not see its way clear to speak as posi- 
tively regarding the need of the graduate year as it did 
concerning the regular college course. 

Academic Training. — The range of subjects to be 
pursued in the general academic training cannot be 
definitely prescribed, but there are certain principles of 
general application. These principles have been recog- 
nized in the report of the committee, but it is worth 
while to state them a little more explicitly than they are 



262 TRAINING OF TEACHERS EOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

there given. In the college the candidate should study 
thoroughly and somewhat extensively two or three 
allied subjects which he desires to teach in the school. 
No exact statement concerning the amount of time to be 
devoted to these subjects can be given, but it may be said, 
in general, that each subject should be pursued in the col- 
lege course from two to four years beyond the point where 
the teaching of it stops in the high school. By choosing 
three different but allied subjects, the candidate will se- 
cure, to the greatest possible degree, the advantages of 
both specialization and general study. Such training also 
prepares the teacher to do better work in the school than 
if he devoted himself exclusively to a single subject. If 
he is properly trained, he can teach two or three subjects 
more profitably than one. The pursuit of the favorite 
subjects should not be permitted to engross so much time 
as to exclude a reasonable number of other courses neces- 
sary for general culture. Especially should English not 
be neglected. The social studies are particularly im- 
portant because of the insight which they give into the 
sphere of the school as an institution ; the high school 
teacher should be an intelligent factor in the working out 
of our numerous unsolved social problems. Psychology 
and the philosophical studies are to be commended, for the 
reasons given in the report. At least one elementary 
course in biology either in the preparatory course or in 
the college should be included. 



A DESIRABLE STANDARD OF TRAINING 263 

Theoretical Professional Training. — The recommen- 
dations of the committee concerning the theoretical pro- 
fessional training, as given under II and V, impress the 
writer as being the most satisfactory part of the report. 
The essential elements of that training are there indi- 
cated. The amomit of time to be devoted to these 
subjects together and to each separately is necessarily 
an uncertain and somewhat variable quantity. Other 
topics might be added, but a satisfactory study of those 
suggested would suffice. It is probably well that the 
study of these subjects should be begun in the third 
year of the college course ; it is certainly desirable that 
they should be continued through the fourth and the 
graduate year. The work of the graduate year should be 
almost, if not entirely, professional, and this fact might 
reduce the amount of theoretical professional work taken 
in the third and fourth years. 

Practical Professional Training. — The recommenda- 
tion of the committee concerning the practical training, 
as given under III, might well be more positive and defi- 
nite. Not only should " opportunity for observation 
and practice teaching with secondary pupils be given," 
but such work should be required, and that, too, under 
careful, competent supervision. It is the opinion of the 
writer that the general academic training and the theo- 
retical professional training, especially the latter, are 
now in a fair way to take care of themselves in any 



264 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

plan for adequate training that may be formulated ; and 
that not only the most difficult, but also the most essen- 
tial point yet to be developed is just this matter of 
actual teaching or what we have called practical profes- 
sional training. That this opinion is shared by others is 
indicated by the following : — 

"I shall assume without further argument that adequate pro- 
fessional instruction of teachers is not exclusively theoretical, but 
involves a certain amount of practical work." ^ 

" In the professional preparation of the teacher practice is not in 
the least intended to supplant theory, but merely to supplement 
it, to vitalize it, to render it useful, and to give the student some 
training in applying it. . . . We have tried to teach students to 
swim by a thorough drill in the principles of buoyancy and 
aquatics, but we have refused to give them even a swimming pool 
where they might try to see if they could prove the worth of these 
principles, or even where they could see other swimmers at work. 
The crying need to-day in our university departments of education 
is for these 'swimming pools.' " ^ 

The candidate should have an opportunity, under proper 
leadership, to observe, during his senior j^ear, both the 
general management of the school and actual teaching of 
the subjects in which he is most interested ; he should 
have, during his graduate or professional year, an oppor- 

^ Dewey, Relation of Theory to Practice. Third Year Book of the 
National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. Part I, p. 9. 

2 Farrington, Observation and Practice Teaching in College and Uni- 
versity Departments of Education. Papers of the National Society of 
College Teachers of Education, February, 1909. 



A DESIRABLE STANDARD OF TRAINING 265 

tunity both to observe such teaching and himself to teach 
regularly at least one of these subjects under close and 
competent supervision. How can such a course of train- 
ing as we have outlined be provided ? An answer to this 
question is attempted in the following chapter. 



CHAPTER XI 
A Plan for Providing the Desired Training 

Any satisfactory plan for the training of teachers for 
the secondary schools must make provision for the gene- 
ral academic training, the theoretical professional train- 
ing, and the practical professional training discussed in the 
preceding chapter. The outline of such a plan is here 
given, along with its apparent advantages and disadvan- 
tages. 

General Academic Training. — With the academic 
training there need be no difficulty. This is the one part 
of the scheme which the colleges and universities have 
always carried out with more or less effectiveness. It is 
only within the last two decades that anything more than 
the general college course was thought necessary. This 
course can be rendered much more profitable to the 
student, however, if he is wisely advised regarding it. 
College students are often ignorant of the conditions pre- 
vailing in the high schools and of the principles underly- 
ing the best arrangement of their work in preparation for 
future service as teachers ; and, unfortunately, the'mem- 
bers of many college faculties are scarcely better informed. 

266 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 267 

The result is that the student often chooses his college 
work without due regard for the requirements of the 
calling upon which he desires to enter. He should be ad- 
vised to prepare himself for the teaching of at least two 
allied subjects ; first, because a teacher is likely to do 
better work, in the long run, if he teaches more than one 
subject, and second, because the practical needs of the 
schools, especially the smaller ones, often require that one 
person shall teach several different subjects. He should 
be advised that some combinations of subjects are better 
than others, and that, in addition to his specialties, he 
should take such other subjects as will give him a broad 
outlook upon the whole field of human culture and at- 
tainment. Through wise advice these ends can be ac- 
compHshed without any undue professionalizing of the 
general academic course. The student should be able to 
make this part of his preparation in any good college. 

The Theoretical Professional Training presents more 
difficulties. The spirit of competition, added to a grow- 
ing appreciation of the importance of the work, has led 
many higher institutions to introduce chairs of education 
or to offer courses in education which are given by a mem- 
ber of some other department. In too many cases these 
instructors have had no special training for their work. 
In some instances they have no particular interest in it, 
and they undertake it only because it is thrust upon them. 
Under such circumstances it is not surprising that the 



268 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

work is unsatisfactory and that it fails to command the 
respect either of students or of other members of the 
faculty. Under similar conditions the same thing would 
be true of Siny other subject in the curriculum. Where 
such conditions exist, it is, of course, hopeless to expect 
that the theoretical professional training will be satisfac- 
tory. The fact that they do exist in many institutions 
need not be taken as particularly discouraging. With 
such rapid development as the subject of education has 
had within the last decade, it is inevitable that there 
should be a lack of well-trained instructors. Sooner or 
later there will be improvement in the quality — possibly 
also a decrease in the number — of courses offered. 
Wherever an institution, large or small, takes proper 
pains to secure competent instructors in the department 
of education, there is no reason why instruction in this 
subject may not be as satisfactory as that in any other, 
or why it may not be given in any good college or uni- 
versity. 

The Practical Part of the Professional Training is not 
so easily arranged, but it is absolutely necessary, and a 
way to provide it must be found. In the first place, there 
should be opportunity in the senior year for a considerable 
amount of observation under the careful personal direc- 
tion of the professor of pedagogy or some one appointed 
by him. The general principles of school and class man- 
agement should be considered as well as the methods of 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 269 

teaching particular subjects. Students might profitably 
spend several days or parts of days in some secondary 
school as the active assistant of the teacher in charge. 
It is important that the school in which observations are 
made should be as good as it is possible to provide. The 
observation work should be systematically directed by 
the professor in charge, and the result of it should be con- 
siderable acquaintance, on the part of the student, 
with the general conditions and needs of the school and 
with the methods of teaching the subjects in which 
he is interested. In American institutions this phase of 
the training work has not received the emphasis that it 
deserves. It is vitally important. 

In the second place, opportunity must be provided for 
actual teaching by the candidate. We have seen that 
in Prussia the general academic training and part of the 
theoretical professional training are given by the uni- 
versity, while the remainder of the theoretical profes- 
sional training and all of the practical professional train- 
ing are given in the gymnasial seminar, which is entirely 
separate from the university. Although we cannot adopt 
the German plan as a whole, there are certain elements 
of it which are adaptable to our use. Both the obser- 
vation of good teaching and an occasional hour of prac- 
tice teaching, as they are provided in many university 
departments of education, are valuable, but they are 
insufficient. The candidate needs real teaching in a real 



270 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

school under close and competent supervision. Under 
existing circumstances the high school cannot of itself 
undertake the training of its own teachers, but why 
should it not cooperate with the university in doing it? 
The closer the connection between the university depart- 
ment of education and the high school, the better it will 
be for all parties concerned. The theoretical work of the 
department of education would be steadied and rendered 
more practical if it were every day in touch with the 
actual work of the school ; and, on the other hand, the 
school would be stimulated by having its work daily 
subjected to the criticism of those who are making a 
sympathetic study of the theory of education. The fol- 
lowing plan is proposed : — 

Cooperation of College and School. — Let the university 
department of education and the schools, especially the 
public high schools, combine their efforts in providing 
opportunities for the practical training of high school 
teachers. The candidate will come to the close of the 
four-year college course with good academic training and 
with theoretical professional training that should include 
at least elementary courses in the history of education, 
educational psychology, the principles of education, sec- 
ondary education, and considerable wisely directed work 
in observation. In consequence of this training he will 
be better prepared for teaching than are a majority of the 
teachers now at work in the high schools. Let him be 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 271 

given a position as candidate teacher in some high school, 
with not to exceed ten hours of teaching and a propor- 
tional amount of responsibility in the general duties of the 
school. With reference to these general duties, let him be 
responsible to the principal of the school, just as is any 
other teacher. Let him be known to the pupils and to 
his colleagues as a teacher with full authority and respon- 
sibility as far as his service goes. In general matters let 
the principal give to him such special care and oversight 
as he would naturally give to any new and inexperienced 
teacher ; but in his classroom teaching let him be under 
the supervision of an expert and experienced teacher 
of the subject, who shall be a member both of the univer- 
sity department of education and of the school faculty. 
This supervisory instructor should criticize the lesson 
plans and the teaching of the candidate, show the relation 
of principles to practice, give demonstrations of his own 
way of teaching, and assist the candidate in every way 
possible. The practical work of the candidate will oc- 
cupy approximately one third of his time, but it should 
be emphasized as the center around which all the other 
work of the year is to be gathered. Instead of being an 
incidental exercise, as are occasional hours of practice 
teaching, it becomes the serious work of the year. 

The professional studies which the candidate will pursue 
along with his teaching will include observation of the 
work of other classes, especially in the subjects in which 



272 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

he is interested ; methods of teaching his subjects ; school 
organization and administration; and such other sub- 
jects as he may choose. At least two thirds of his time 
will be devoted to professional rather than purely aca- 
demic work. 

The Professor of Education. — In the management of the 
practical training of the candidate, three instructors will 
be concerned : the professor of education, the high school 
principal, and the supervising instructor. It will be neces- 
sary for them to w^ork in harmonious cooperation. As the 
responsible director of the department work, the professor 
of education must know intimately the students in his 
department and must be responsible for their admission 
to the practical work ; he must keep in close touch with 
the practical work which each candidate is doing; he 
must have the veto power in matters which seem to him 
to concern the success of his department ; and he must 
have authority in the selection of the supervising instruc- 
tors. He must be able to keep a firm hold on large es- 
sentials and at the same time to give a free hand to his 
colleagues in the details of their work. Since the welfare 
of the school and the welfare of particular university 
departments as well as that of his own department must 
be conserved, there will be abundant opportunity for the 
exercise of tact and good management. 

The high school principal (or, in small schools, the 
superintendent) would have, under ordinary conditions, 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 273 

a relatively small but a very important part in the work. 
As the responsible director of the high school he should 
have, with the approval of the managing board, a voice in 
the admission of candidates to his school ; he should have 
the authority to require their withdrawal in case their 
work is of such character as to injure the school; he 
should have a hand in the general arrangement of the 
candidates' work in the school ; he should have author- 
ity over the candidates just as over his regular teachers 
during the hours of their service ; and he should be re- 
sponsible for such assistance as he can render them during 
these times. If circumstances permit, he might himself 
serve as supervising instructor, but he would not usually 
be able to do this on account of the multitude of duties 
connected with his ofi&ce. Perhaps the most serious criti- 
cism that can be passed upon the work of the Prussian 
gymnasial seminar is that the director, who is also prin- 
cipal of the school, does not have enough time to devote 
to it. We should avoid this difficulty and should call 
upon the principal for such service only as can be rendered 
in a more or less incidental way. If he has faith in the 
plan and tact in its execution, he can render valuable 
assistance without adding greatly to his own burdens. 

The supervising teacher is the new factor in the scheme. 
He must be one whose scholarship commands the confi- 
dence of his colleagues in the university, whose teaching 
ability commands the confidence of both teachers and 



274 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

pupils in the high school, and whose personality is 
pleasing to all. It is immaterial whether he is prima- 
rily a member of the university faculty or of the high 
school corps. There are few enough qualified persons 
to be found in either place at present, and securing 
them would necessitate selection and training. The 
necessary combination of pedagogic and academic in- 
terest and training is found none too often, but a recog- 
nition of the need would produce the type of instructor re- 
quired for this work. There should be such an instructor 
for each of the main groups of subjects taught in the 
high school. Probably the best results would be obtained 
if part of these instructors belonged to the high school 
corps and part to the university faculty. Their teaching 
in the high school might be used for the observation work 
required of all candidates in the senior college year, in 
which case the pedagogical service rendered would be 
more or less incidental, but it would be none the less effec- 
live. The actual teaching of subject matter in the high 
school and in the university would have to be done by 
some one else if it were not done by them. Therefore, the 
only expense would be the cost of the purely supervisory 
work which they would do, and the paying of a larger 
salary to an instructor of this type than would be needed 
for the ordinary instructor. These men would be, in the 
best sense of the term, teachers of teachers, and the ut- 
most care should be used in selecting them. 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 275 

The foregoing scheme is proposed as a simple, practical 
plan for the adequate training of high school teachers. 
It does not contemplate the training of administrative 
leaders. Many college departments of education or 
schools of education will desire to offer more courses than 
the minimum number indicated as necessary; and many 
students, especially those who are preparing themselves 
for administrative work, will desire to take these addi- 
tional courses. On the other hand, there are many in- 
stitutions that will gladly provide for such work as may 
be necessary for the training of high school teachers, but 
they do not wish to develop a complete professional school 
for the training of leaders. In a small college two mem- 
bers of the department of education and six supervising 
instructors could carry the theoretical work of the depart- 
ment, and care for a dozen teaching candidates. If one 
half of the standard colleges and universities of the 
country should turn out annually an average of five 
teachers trained according to the above plan, the effect 
upon high school teaching would soon be felt. Of course 
many institutions could provide opportunities for a much 
larger number. 

"State Supervision. — The plan proposed is immediately 
adaptable to any good college or university and any ad- 
jacent secondary school of high grade that are willing to 
cooperate seriously and intelligently in the work of train- 
ing high school teachers; but its complete development 



276 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

will not be effected until the state establishes adequate 
standards of certification and then assumes supervisory 
control of the institutions in which teachers receive their 
professional training. Legal standards of certification are 
probably a necessary preliminary to the general adoption 
of so extensive a plan for the training of teachers. Until 
such legislation is enacted the state will have no occasion 
to supervise the cooperative work of schools and colleges, 
and all that is done before that time will be voluntary, 
and consequently optional in character. But when the 
state establishes a standard of training and pays money 
to secure it, there must, of course, be state supervision, 
and it should be exercised over all the institutions that 
attempt to do the work. State institutions would prob- 
ably have certain advantages, due to the fact that they 
are part of the public educational system, but there 
seems to be no sufficient reason why private colleges and 
schools might not do the work successfully under state 
supervision. The assistance of all available colleges, 
universities, and schools is needed. State supervision is 
now being exercised in California, Indiana (for the ele- 
mentary schools), and New York. 

The State Examination. — There remains the question, 
whether in addition to the five years of training which 
the candidate receives, there should be required of him a 
final state examination such as is required of the German 
candidate. Far more important than any examination is 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 277 

the training itself, and if it were well done, with due regard 
to the elimination of unsuitable candidates, as well as to 
the promotion of those who are capable, the examination 
might be omitted. For the present, at least, it may be 
regarded as unnecessary for those who have taken, under 
state supervision, such a course of training as has been 
indicated. Whether the increased stimulus and safety, 
which a dignified, serious examination affords, will in the 
future be regarded as desirable, may be left an open 
question until there is a greater abundance of adequately 
trained .teachers than exists at present. Apart from the 
question of feasibility under existing circumstances, 
the logic of the situation seems to require it for teachers, 
no less than for lawyers and physicians. It will not soon 
be possible in the United States, however, to require 
absolutely of all candidates such a course of training as 
has been suggested. For those who have not had such 
training, but who are nevertheless capable of successful 
teaching in the secondary schools, the examination should 
remain as a means of showing equivalent culture and 
ability. 

The Life Certificate. — It is doubtful whether a Ufe 
certificate should ever be issued by the state until the 
candidate has had a successful teaching experience of at 
least two years including the year of practical professional 
training. It is only reasonable, however, that when he 
has honorably fulfilled adequate professional require- 



278 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

merits, he should receive the legal recognition that is 
due a professional man, in the form of a life certificate 
to teach in the public high schools. In case the holder 
does not teach for a series of years, recognition of the 
validity of the certificate might reasonably be made 
optional with school authorities. 

Summary. — The essentials of the plan which has been 
proposed for the training and certification of high school 
teachers may be summarized as follows : — 

1. A five-year course of combined academic and pro- 
fessional training following the completion of a good four- 
year preparatory course. 

2. Such study of two or three subjects as will give the 
candidate scholarship sufiicient to teach them effectively 
in the high school. 

3. Such study of other subjects as will give him a 
broad outlook upon other departments of scholarship and 
upon life. 

4. At least an elementary study, during the third and 
fourth years of the college course, of the history of educa- 
tion, educational psychology, principles of education, 
secondary education, and observation of actual teaching. 

5. One year of graduate study (which might well be 
called the professional year) , in which he shall divide his 
time between actual teaching under careful supervision 
and additional theoretical professional study, the former 
to be regarded as fundamentally important. 



A PLAN FOR PROVroiNG THE DESIRED TRAINING 279 

6. For the satisfactory completion of such a course of 
training the university should give a special professional 
teacher's certificate; and when the work is properly 
organized under state authority and supervision, the 
state should give a professional life certificate to teach in 
the high school. 

Advantages of the Plan. — i . First should be mentioned 
its effectiveness from the pedagogical point of view. The 
plan combines the strongest elements of the present 
American system — academic and theoretical professional 
instruction by university professors, with the strongest 
element of the Prussian system — cadet teaching in a 
real school under normal conditions, carefully super- 
vised by expert teachers and administrators. The candi- 
date has reached the stage in his development when he 
should be more interested in the practical than in the 
theoretical side of the vocation, and this year of com- 
bined effort will serve to bridge the gap between theory 
and practice. He has sufficient maturity and training to 
enable him to assume a critical attitude towards his own 
efforts and to profit greatly by observing the work of 
others and by having their criticism of his own work. 
The practical work and the theoretical studies will each 
be illuminated by the other, and the candidate will have 
time and opportunity to see their mutual relationship in 
a way that will prove helpful in his whole subsequent 
career. The close relating of the theoretical and the 



28o TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

practical will remove the ground for the more or less justi- 
fied criticism that theoretical pedagogy is of little value 
because it is so far removed from practice. Finally, 
the excellent result of this combination of theory and 
practice in those individual cases in which it has been 
made as a matter of necessity seems to be empirical proof 
of the value of the plan. 

2. The plan is adaptable to any community where there 
is a college or university and a secondary school which 
are prepared to cooperate heartily in a serious effort to 
provide proper training for future secondary school 
teachers. Beyond a certain minimum limit the success 
of the enterprise would not depend upon the size of the 
institutions, though there would be manifest advantages 
where the cooperating high schools were abundant. 
A private secondary school might cooperate as effectively 
as a public high school, but the training received there 
would reflect the spirit of the private school rather than 
that of the high school. In most schools, unfortunately, 
there is such a change of teachers each year that candi- 
dates could be admitted without unduly disturbing the 
stability of the school. There seems no good reason 
why a school might not definitely arrange to use a speci- 
fied number of candidates each year. 

3. It involves no great financial outlay. Buildings and 
other material equipment already exist. No new teachers 
would be needed, for the additional supervisory duties 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 281 

performed by the high school principal and the supervis- 
ing instructor would be more than offset by the services 
rendered by the candidates. Possible sources of increased 
expense would be as follows : (a) It would probably be 
necessary to pay the supervising instructor a higher 
salary than would be paid to the teacher who did his work 
under the usual conditions, (b) It might be necessary 
to pay the school a bonus for its share in the enterprise. 
The state could well afford to meet such expense if it 
were found to be necessary, (c) It m.ight be necessary, 
for a time at least, to pay the candidates for their service. 
This should be done, but the necessity of doing it would 
depend upon the number of applicants for this sort of 
training. In any case the total expense for all purposes 
need not be great. 

i 4. The stimulating effect of this teaching under criti- 
cism would be helpful in all the work of the high school. 
Every teacher would be subject to visitation and criti- 
cism. He would be compelled by force of circumstances 
to keep in touch with pedagogical thought regarding the 
subjects that he teaches, and if he is a true teacher, he 
would take delight in making each day's work as good 
as possible. The experience of a few schools where 
the plan has been tried indicates so great improve- 
ment in the spirit and attainments of the school that 
even the parents have recognized it and have approved 
the plan. 



282 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

5. The steadying effect of daily contact with the practi- 
cal needs of the school would strengthen the work of 
the university department of education. It cannot 
be justly claimed that all the legitimate work of this de- 
partment should be tested by the rule of practice, but 
it should show considerate regard for actual needs and 
conditions. 

6. A real school of high grade is the best possible place 
in which a candidate can receive his practical professional 
training. It is far better than any mere practice school 
which is conducted more for the purpose of training 
teachers than training pupils, 

"For the training of the average teacher the regular secondary 
schools are far better [than special practice or experimental schools 
belonging to the university], since they provide experience under 
normal conditions, and the amount of practice teaching would not 
be enough to interfere with the character of the instruction and 
the organization of the school. Training in experimental schools 
is apt to be abnormal and not to give either the character or the 
quantity of the experience needed by the pupil teachers. In a 
state system of schools which includes the university, there should 
be no objection to such an arrangement. With private colleges 
it would be somewhat different, but could probably be arranged." * 

7. The high schools would have a good opportunity 
to recruit their own regular teaching force from the ranks 
of the candidates with whose qualifications they are 

1 Monroe, Paul, " The Organization of the Department of Education 
in Relation to the Other Departments in Colleges and Universities," 
Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. XIX, p. 124. 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 283 

already well acquainted. This would doubtless be less 
uncertain, and consequently more satisfactory, than 
choosing teachers of longer experience with whom they 
were not so well acquainted. 

Objections to the Plan. — i. The successful execution 
of the plan would require an amount of cooperation be- 
tween university authorities on the one hand and school 
authorities on the other, that it might be difficult to 
secure. Without such cooperation the plan would cer- 
tainly fail. There would be required on the part of those 
concerned a clear appreciation of the need of training 
teachers, faith in the plan proposed, mutual personal 
confidence and consideration, and enough tact to avoid 
impossible situations. 

2. Perhaps the greatest menace to the success of the 
plan lies in the fact that it would doubtless be used by 
institutions which are not qualified to do the work 
thoroughly, and thus the scheme might be brought into 
ill repute. The plan is so adaptable that, were it once 
taken up by a few institutions which are well equipped to 
carry it through successfully, it would soon be adopted 
by other institutions whose equipment and standards are 
inferior. This difficulty could be met only by proper state 
supervision of the scheme, in some such way as prevails 
now in the province of Ontario, Canada. Toronto Uni- 
versity and Queens University are authorized to carry on 
the work of training high school teachers under condi- 



284 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

tions definitely prescribed by the Government, and when 
the work is done, Government recognition is given. 

3. Since the plan contemplates the use of those colleges 
and secondary schools only which are located near enough 
together to make speedy intercommunication easy, not 
enough teachers could be trained in them. To this ob- 
jection it may be repHed that if the plan were adopted 
by all those institutions which can meet these conditions 
perfectly, it would mark a great improvement over the 
existing situation. It is possible also that, with experi- 
ence, it might be extended and modified so as to include 
some schools located at considerable distance from the 
college. The candidate might teach in such a school 
during one semester, carrying on at the same time a cer- 
tain amount of university work in absentia, and return to 
the university for the other semester. Work of this kind 
is now being done by Harvard University and by the 
University of Wisconsin. 

4. It might be impossible to provide opportunities for 
cadet teaching for all who desired to undertake it, and 
consequently a painful process of selection would be neces- 
sary. Such circumstances sometimes arise in connection 
with other subjects, however, and the most competent 
are admitted to the desired course. That it might work 
real hardship in some cases may be granted without in any 
way condemning the ultimate wisdom of the procedure. 
One of the greatest benefits to be derived from the proper 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 285 

training of teachers would come from the winnowing out 
of those who, for sufficient reason, are not adapted for the 
work, and the sooner it comes the better for all parties 
concerned. 

5. Enough competent supervising instructors are not 
available either among high school teachers or among the 
members of university faculties. A very real difficulty, 
but the demand would create the supply. The position 
would establish a new and desirable rank among high 
school teachers, and it would open a new field for the 
efforts of university instructors. 

6. Parents would object to having their children 
practiced upon by inexperienced teachers. Another 
real difficulty, but not so serious as it is often thought to 
be. In many schools, especially the smaller ones, the 
children are taught by inexperienced teachers who have 
had no professional training, who are heavily loaded with 
teaching, and w^hose work receives no criticism from a more 
experienced colleague. These teachers are "practicing" 
quite as much as the candidates whom we are considering, 
and they are doing it under conditions far less favorable 
to themselves or to their pupils. When it is remem- 
bered that, under the plan proposed, the candidates are 
teaching every lesson under the sympathetic, critical 
supervision of an experienced teacher of the subject, who 
has been chosen for this supervision just because he is a 
superior teacher, the probability of unsatisfactory teach- 



286 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

ing is reduced to a minimum. If the training system 
did not exist in the school, the superior teacher would, 
in many cases, not be there, and pupils would never have 
the advantage of his skill. With such an explanation of 
the situation the objections of parents can usually be met. 
But even in those cases where they persist, the manifest 
advantage to the schools as a whole is so great that the 
inconsiderate objections of parents may well be over- 
ruled. 

7. The presence of inexperienced candidates in the 
school is a disturbing factor because of the constant 
uncertainty concerning the success of their efforts. If 
their work is properly supervised, this need not be a seri- 
ous matter, and, as in the case of the previous objection, 
the advantage to the schools as a whole is so great that 
it more than compensates for any temporary disturbance. 

8. It is not easy to adjust the working hours of candi- 
dates and supervising instructors so that both the univer- 
sity work and the high school work can be properly done. 
This is an administrative difficulty which could not, in 
every case, be easily adjusted, but it would probably 
not prove to be a serious matter. 

The University Training School. — No mention has 
thus far been made of the place of the distinctive univer- 
sity training school in the scheme that has been proposed. 
The advantages of such a school are that it is entirely 
under the control of the department of education ; it '3 



A PLAN FOR PROVIDING THE DESIRED TRAINING 287 

coiiveniently located ; it can be used for purposes of ex- 
perimentation; and its work can be arranged with refer- 
ence to the needs of the department of education. It can 
be used for a limited amount of cadet teaching in the same 
way as the high school. All things considered, it is a dis- 
tinct advantage to the work to have such a school. As it 
is likely not to be large, however, it is more valuable 
for purposes of observation than for cadet teaching. In 
the former sphere it should be extremely helpful. But it 
alone is not sufficient for the satisfactory practical train- 
ing of teachers ; it lacks some advantages in comparison 
with the regular public high school ; and it is not ab- 
solutely necessary where cooperative arrangements can 
be made with a local secondary school. 



CHAPTER XII 

Conclusion 

The American people have great faith in the value of 
education, and they are willing to pay liberally for the 
support of their schools. There is yet lacking, however, 
adequate appreciation of the fact that the worth of a 
school is determined more by the efficiency of the teacher 
than by all other factors combined, and that the work 
of the high school teacher is serious business, requiring 
for its successful performance not only good native abil- 
ity, but thorough training also, Germany and several 
other European nations (see Appendix) have acted more 
wisely than our own country in this matter. They have 
recognized the strategic importance of the work in the 
secondary schools; they have fixed high standards of 
qualifications for their teachers ; they have provided the 
best means that they could devise for the training of these 
teachers ; and they have deliberately made the position of 
teacher in the higher schools so attractive financially 
and socially that men of high character and ability have 
been drawn into it. For these nations it means the per- 
petuation of the best in their aristocracy. It is quite 

288 



CONCLUSION 289 

time that we should take more seriously what is really 
an important factor in the welfare of our American de- 
mocracy and adopt adequate measures for the training 
and support of the teachers in our secondary schools. 

Even if such a course of training as we have outlined 
were now offered by the colleges and universities, it is 
probable that no great number of candidates for the 
teacher's office would pursue it to the end until the legal 
requirements for certification are higher than they now 
are ; but it is to be hoped that enough would take it to 
test the practicability of the plan and the value of the 
training given. If the colleges and universities of the 
country would express their conviction of the need of 
some such standard of qualifications for high school 
teachers as has been indicated in the foregoing discussion, 
and would then, to the limit of their ability, support their 
convictions by the establishment of departments of edu- 
cation that would provide opportunities for such training, 
they would give to the ambitious individual an opportu- 
nity to secure the desired training, and they would place 
themselves in position to join hands with high school 
officials, and school authorities generally, in urging the 
state to adopt a satisfactory professional standard for the 
training and certification of high school teachers. 

In the light of the sentiment and conditions existing in 
most of the states at the present time the standard pro- 
posed must, of course, be regarded by the practical person 



290 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

as ideal and not to be attained at once. Some of the steps 
by which it will be reached are indicated in the various 
standards now existing in the different states for the 
training and certification of high school teachers. In 
many of the states the first step towards the establish- 
ment of a special high school certificate has not been 
taken. California, on the other hand, has practically 
reached the standard proposed, and a few other states 
are approaching it. The experience of other nations 
and a rational view of our own needs testify that this 
standard is the lowest that should be accepted when 
the time shall be ripe for the establishment of a profes- 
sional standard, and that all temporary legislation should 
look forward to this end. It is probably not too high 
for early adoption in some states, and it is certainly not 
too high to be adopted by those colleges and universities 
which believe in the establishment of a truly professional 
standard of preparation for high school teachers and 
which desire to be leaders in providing the needed train- 
ing. Development is certain to be slow, but it is incum- 
bent upon individuals, educational institutions, and the 
state to make sure that it is not slower than it ought 
to be. In state certification California leads the way. 
In institutional activity Brown University and the 
Providence high schools are making an enviable record. 
Let us hope that other states and other institutions will 
speedily follow their example. 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX 

The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools 
IN Other Countries 

Austria. — The provisions for the training of secondary 
school teachers and the conditions under which they work 
are much the same as those prevaiKng in Germany, A few 
points of difference may be mentioned. The candidate must 
have spent at least seven semesters in the university before he 
is permitted to apply for the state examination. Only one 
year of practical training is required, but two are permitted 
and encouraged. This period is called the Probejahr, or in the 
second case, the extended Probejahr. Formal seminar meet- 
ings are not required as in Prussia, but, under the direction 
of an experienced teacher to whom he has been assigned for 
guidance, the candidate visits classes, gives instruction, and 
engages in frequent conferences with his superiors concerning 
his work. A long written report is not required, but only 
" written notes (Elaborate) according to circumstances." 
The certificate given to the candidate at the close of the Probe- 
jahr must be signed by the professors and class teachers to 
whose supervision he was assigned as well as by the director 
of the school. 

Finland requires graduation from the university, and if a 
candidate expects to attain a position in the highest rank, 

293 



294 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

he must have won the highest honors in his university career. 
He will have some advantages if he attains the doctor's degree 
also. Following the university course he must spend a year 
in practical training at one of the Normal Lyceums or second- 
ary schools, where he observes, teaches, listens to lectures 
by a imiversity professor, and is engaged in frequent confer- 
ences concerning his work. At the close of the year of train- 
ing he must pass an examination in pedagogic theory, and 
either then or later, an examination in practical work. Great 
importance is attached to the latter. 

Sweden. — A teacher in the secondary schools must be a 
graduate of a university ; he must have made special prepara- 
tion in the three subjects that he expects to teach; and he 
must spend one year after graduation in a higher school, ob- 
serving and teaching in all the classes of the school in turn. 
In order to obtain the highest positions, he must have taken 
the doctor's degree. In the year of practical training he is 
under the supervision of teachers to whose guidance he has 
been assigned. '' Proof " lessons are followed by criticism, as 
in the Prussian seminar. Lectures on the theory of education 
are sometimes given by a university instructor, but they need 
not have any particular connection with the practical work. 
The emphasis is placed upon scholarship in the subjects to be 
taught and upon practical observation and experience in the 
schools. 

Denmark requires a university course which demands five 
or six years for its completion, followed by six months of 
professional training. The candidate hears lectures on the 
theory of education and teaches in one of the great public 



APPENDIX 295 

schools under the supervision of the director and the subject 
teachers to whom he is assigned. At the close of the period 
he must pass an examination in both theory and practice. 
In the practical examination the examining commission ob- 
serve his instruction during two hours of teaching in each 
subject. He must be prepared in one principal subject and 
two related subjects. 

Norway has requirements which are very similar to those 
of Denmark. 

France. — The minimum scholastic requirement for teachers 
in the secondary schools of France is the attainment of the 
licence, which is secured after two or three years of university 
study following the completion of the secondary school course, 
and which corresponds in general to the American A.B. 
degree. There are two kinds of secondary schools, the col- 
lege and the lycee. The latter is of higher rank than the for- 
mer, although the certificate from either admits to the univer- 
sity. There are three grades of instructors in these schools, 
based upon scholastic qualifications, experience, and teaching 
ability. The highest rank is that of professor (professeur 
agrege), and it is held by those who, besides having a licence, 
have passed successfully a very severe competitive exami- 
nation (agregation) . It requires at least two years of work 
after a man has received the licence before he is prepared to 
enter for this examination. Competition is open to all, re- 
gardless of age or position, and many succeed late in life. 
Those who pass this examination successfully have the rank 
of professor, and they have a legal right to what is practically a 
life position as teacher in a lycee. The minister of education is 



296 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

under obligations to find such a place for them. The number 
of successful applicants is limited to the number of men for 
whom positions of this kind are available, hence the standard 
prevailing in the examination is very high. The highest 
position that can be held by a teacher who has a licence only 
is that of professor in charge (professeur charge de cours) in a 
lycee. There are also many less desirable positions of this 
kind in the colleges. Those holders of the licence who cannot 
secure positions of the second rank may yet find places as 
assistants (repetikurs, surveillants , or preparateurs). Some of 
these ultimately secure ['promotion, others are unable to rise. 
In case of the absence of a professor an assistant is placed 
in charge of his classes. 

A limited number of candidates for positions in the second- 
ary schools receive special training in the higher normal 
school (Ecole Normale Superieure). By competitive exami- 
nation about twenty persons are selected annually to whom 
scholarships are given along with admission to the normal 
school. All their expenses are paid while they are preparing, 
first for the licence and then for the agregation. It requires at 
least five years to do this. Partial scholarships are given to 
some candidates. Of students who prepare for their exami- 
nations in the provincial universities no specified amount of 
pedagogical training is required, but students in the normal 
school are given work in both theoretical pedagogy and prac- 
tice teaching. The latter consists of lessons (which are really 
lectures) given by the candidate before his colleagues, and of 
at least three weeks of work in the city lycees under the super- 
vision of competent teachers. In the modern languages 



APPENDIX 297 

practice teaching is extended to approximately two thirds 
of a year. There is at present a distinct tendency to em- 
phasize the importance and to increase the amount of this 
work. In the training of teachers for the French secondary 
schools emphasis is placed upon accurate and thorough 
scholarship in the subjects to be taught. 

England has depended more upon tradition and the 
demands of employers than upon legislation to secure the 
proper training of the teachers in the secondary schools. 
As a general rule these teachers are university graduates, but 
there are many exceptions. " A man can obtain work as soon 
as he leaves school, say at the age of eighteen ; on leaving the 
university three or four years later he has no difficulty in 
securing quite a good post, especially if he is an athlete ! " "^ 
There is no legal standard of preparation for secondary school 
teachers; in fact they are not required to be certificated 
at all. This state of affairs may be explained in part by the 
fact that until 1902 the secondary schools of England, in- 
cluding the great Public Schools, were practically all under 
private management. Attempts to maintain a secondary 
school teachers' Register under the authority of the Board 
of Education (the national authority in school affairs) have 
thus far failed ; but the necessity of having one is generally 
recognized, and it seems likely that it will be established in 
the near future. 

Since 1872 the Head Masters' Association has consistently 
urged the necessity of professional training for teachers in the 

1 Conditions of Service of Teachers, prepared by a committee of the 
Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters, p. 155. 



298 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

secondary schools. Several universities took up the matter 
and provided opportunities for professional training either in 
connection with or following the university course. The col- 
leges for women did much more than those for men. In 1905 
the Board of Education provided in the Regulations for 
Secondary Schools that " when the Board think fit, they may, 
on consideration of the teaching staff as a whole, require that 
a certain proportion of all new appointments shall consist of 
persons who have gone through a course of training recog- 
nized by the Board for the purpose." ^ But until the enact- 
ment in 1908 of the following regulations for the Training of 
Teachers for the Secondary Schools ^ no provision was made 
by the Government for their professional training. 

Regulations for the Training of Teachers for 
Secondary Schools 

Prefatory Memorandum 

(i) The necessity of making some systematic provision for 
efficient courses of professional training for men and women 
intending to teach in Secondary Schools has been impressed on 
the Board by several considerations. 

(2) In the first place, a large number of Secondary Schools 
have been called into existence under the Act of 1902, and a 
still larger number have come for the first time under the 

^ Regulations for Secondary Schools, 1909, Art. 15. 

2 Since the legal regulations concerning the training of secondary 
teachers in England and Scotland are of great interest as showing the 
recent rapid development of opinion in the subject and the tactful use 
of existing institutions in the gradual attainment of the desired end, 
these regulations are given at considerable length, and, for the most 
part, in ofl&cial form. 



APPENDIX 299 

cognizance of the Board by the operation of that Act. For the 
staffing of these schools the available sources of supply have 
not been adequate. Furthermore, the inspections made by the 
Board of Education have in many schools disclosed faults 
which systematic training would have done much to avoid; 
and it is hoped that so real a growth of opinion has taken place 
in favor of giving to teachers destined for Secondary Schools a 
technical preparation for their profession, that there may be 
some likelihood that the wider opportunities for training now 
provided will in future be utilized. 

(3) In maldng the necessary regulations for the recognition 
of training institutions for Teachers in Secondary Schools the 
Board will regard all institutions, or departments of institu- 
tions, which comply with Articles i-i i of these Regulations as 
being qualified for recognition for the purposes of Article 16 
of the Regulations for Secondary Schools. This recognition 
will not imply more than that the institutions or departments 
of institutions so recognized are held to provide a satisfactory 
course of training for this purpose. The Board will be in the 
position to make Grants from the Exchequer to such Institu- 
tions only as impose no religious tests, either on students 
applying for admission or on the teaching staff or on the 
Governing Body. 

(4) The Board are aware that a great deal of excellent 
training work is being carried on in a few specially organized 
Secondary Schools on lines which constitute the school the 
pivot of the training, and they are prepared to recognize, under 
suitable conditions, departments of such schools as Training 
Colleges for Secondary School teachers. This kind of organi- 
zation is at present in its experimental stage, and in most cases 
involves the training of students in smaller groups than is 
usual in Training Colleges of the established type. In view of 
these facts and of the limited amount of money available for 
the purpose, the Board have been compelled to confine their 
grants to those cases of this kind in which a minimum of ten 
students can be effectively trained on those Unes. 



300 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

(5) The Board are not satisfied that all Training Colleges 
for Secondary School teachers have heretofore insisted on a 
sufficiently high level of general academical attainment as a 
condition of training. They are convinced that if a course of 
training is to be sound and effective, there must be no suspicion 
of indifference to the substantial knowledge which, after all, is 
the main outfit of the teacher. The Regulations accordingly 
provide that the course of training should be taken after 
graduation or its equivalent, and shall be confined to purely 
professional work. 

(6) Although a teacher should never cease learning more 
of the subject or subjects he has to teach, — this is indeed a 
condition of good teaching, — yet at this stage and for the pur- 
pose here in view the student should be concerned rather with 
methods of instruction that have been found useful in the 
different parts of the school curriculum, with problems of dis- 
cipline and school organization, and with the best ways of 
influencing young minds. This being so, the Board will re- 
quire as an indispensable condition for the award of recogni- 
tion or grant, that Colleges or Departments should have 
access under proper conditions to Secondary Schools which are 
thoroughly suitable for demonstration and practice. They 
desire to make it quite clear that however good the lectures 
given on the theory and history of education may be, they will 
attach the first importance to arrangements which will enable 
every student to see good teaching at close quarters, and to 
practice teaching under skilled criticism and for periods suf- 
ficiently long to admit of the acquisition of some real facility 
in instructing and handling classes, and in drawing up second- 
ary school time tables and curricula. The Board are well 
aware that a year's training, however skillful, cannot insure 
the making of a good teacher ; but they are satisfied that 
after a year's careful study and practice in teaching under 
supervision, in the way described, it should at least be possible 
for a teacher to undertake school work armed against the 
worst faults of inexperience and ignorance. 



APPENDIX 301 

(7) Much depends upon the general competence of those 
who train the future teacher, and for that reason the Regula- 
tions require the staff of recognized institutions to be ap- 
proved; but even more depends upon their direct experience 
in the special kind of teaching for which their students are 
preparing ; and it is for this reason that the Board require that 
not less than one half of the staff shall themselves have been 
successful teachers for a reasonable time in Secondary Schools. 
There is, undoubtedly, a great deal that is common to the needs 
of all kinds of teachers ; but the effective handling of the sub- 
jects and the pupils of different types of Secondary Schools 
must obviously call for familiarity with the special conditions 
of teaching peculiar to those schools, as distinguished from 
teaching in Elementary Schools on the one hand and from 
University teaching on the other. 

(8) The manner in which the grants are to be calculated 
calls for some explanation. The Regulations provide that 
Grants will be paid to Colleges in which the number of Recog- 
nized Students is not less than ten at the rate of 100 1, in respect 
of every complete group of five Recognized Students, subject 
to the condition that the Grant shall not exceed one half of the 
total sum which the Board are satisfied is paid for salaries on 
account of services rendered in respect of the work of the 
Secondary Training Department. By indicating in this way 
that the Grants are intended to promote the improvement of 
salaries and of teaching staff, and that they should be supple- 
mented for this purpose by at least equal amounts derived 
from other sources, the Board desire to encourage the em- 
ployment of adequate and thoroughly qualified teaching staffs. 
Thus it is hoped that improvement will follow in cases where it 
is most necessary, and that the effectiveness and prestige of 
the institutions will be increased. It is certain that, while the 
work of most of the Training Colleges for Secondary School 
teachers has been well done, yet they have often been unable 
to supply themselves with staffs of sufficiently high standing 
and experience to command general respect. 



302 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

(9) The total Parliamentary Grant which has been made 
available from the Exchequer in aid of institutions for the 
training of teachers for Secondary Schools is strictly limited 
to 5000/. It must, therefore, be understood that if in any 
year the Grants, which will be payable at the rates provided 
for by the Regulations, should amount in all to more than 
that sum, it would be necessary for the Board in subsequent 
years to reduce those rates with a view to bringing the total 
sum payable within the prescribed limit. 

CHAPTER I 

General Conditions 

1. In order to be recognized as a Training College under 
these Regulations an institution must be an institution or 
a department of an institution organized for the purpose of 
giving instruction in the principles and practice of teaching 
specially designed for persons who are preparing to become 
teachers in Secondary Schools as defined in the Regulations of 
the Board of Education for Secondary Schools. 

2. The Training College course must be confined to purely 
professional instruction. 

3. No institution can be recognized unless the Board are 
satisfied from time to time as to the following particulars : 
General management ; adequacy, competence, and salaries of 
staff ; courses of instruction and tests of proficiency ; scale of 
fees; premises; equipment. 

4. (o) Adequate provision must be made, in Secondary 
Schools approved by the Board for this purpose, for the in- 
struction and practice of students in teaching and in school 
organization and management. 

(5) If the Training College is a department of a Secondary 
School, this condition may be satisfied, provided the student 
has ample practical experience during the year of training in 
the school of which the College is a part. 



APPENDIX 303 

5. (a) The principal or head of the Training College or 
department and not less than one half of the staff employed 
in the professional instruction and training of students in the 
Training College or department must have had, as members of 
the teaching staff, successful experience of the routine and 
practice of Secondary Schools for a reasonable period. 

(b) At least one person, and as many more as the Board 
may from time to time consider necessary, must be designated 
as members of the staff of the Training College or Department 
for Secondary Training, and must give to their duties in this 
capacity a proportion of time adequate, in the opinion of the 
Board, for their proper discharge. In cases where the number 
of students in training reaches ten, the person or persons so 
designated must be engaged either exclusively or mainly in the 
supervision and direction of the work of students who are 
recognized by the Board as undergoing an approved Course of 
Training in accordance with these Regulations. 

6. The course must extend over not less than a full academi- 
cal year. 

7. Not less than two thirds of the teaching practice must 
be taken in a Secondary School or Schools approved for this 
purpose by the Board. At least sixty school days must be 
spent in contact with class work, under proper supervision. 

8. As a rule students must include in their course a special 
study of the teaching of one definite branch of the curriculum 
of a Secondary School.^ 

9. (a) The selection of particular persons for admission to 
a Training College rests with the authorities of the College, but 
the Board will limit recognition for the purposes of these 
Regulations to persons qualified in accordance with the ensu- 
ing paragraphs of this Section. 

(b) Until July 31, 191 1, the Board will recognize as stu- 
dents in Training Colleges approved under these Regulations 

* The special study of Modem Languages will not be considered ade- 
quate unless a period of study abroad has been passed, either before or 
during the period of training, under conditions approved by the Board. 



304 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

persons who have obtained an approved degree conferred 
by some University of the United Kingdom, or who have 
obtained an approved degree conferred by some other Uni- 
versity of recognized standing, or who have obtained one 
of the quahfications mentioned in Appendix B to these 
Regulations. [See page 308.] 

(c) After August i, 1911,^ the Board will limit recognition 
for the purposes of these Regulations to students who have 
obtained an approved degree conferred by some University of 
the United Kingdom, or who have obtained an approved de- 
gree conferred by some other University of recognized stand- 
ing, or who have obtained one of the qualifications men- 
tioned in Appendix A to these Regulations. [See page 307.] 

10. If persons other than students recognized by the Board 
under these Regulations are admitted to a Training College, 
the Board must be satisfied that the inclusion of such Students 
does not affect imfavorably the instruction and practice of the 
Recognized students. 

11. The maximum number of students, whether recog- 
nized or not, who may be in training at any one time, will be 
fixed for each Training College by the Board after considera- 
tion of the premises, staff, equipment, and courses of the 
College, and the character of the provision made for the in- 
struction of students in approved practicing and demonstra- 
tion schools.^ 

No training College will be recognized which has fewer than 
three students in training. 

12. Provided that the conditions set forth in Articles i to 
1 1 of these Regulations are fulfilled, the Board may recognize 
an institution or department of an institution for the training 

' It is intended in due course to limit recognition to persons who have 
taken an approved degree, or passed examinations equivalent to such 
qualification. 

2 The Board may hereafter require as a condition of eligibility for 
Grants that a Training College shall have at its disposal a satisfactorily 
equipped Secondary School to serve as a Demonstration School. 



APPENDIX 305 

of teachers for Secondary Schools, as efScient, provided it 
applies for recognition, and whether it is eligible for the receipt 
of Grants under Chapter II of these Regulations, or not. Such 
institutions will on recognition be placed on the list of certified 
Training Colleges for Teachers for Secondary Schools which it 
is intended to issue. 

CHAPTER II 

Conditions for Payment of Grant 

13. Grants will be paid annually by the Board to Training 
Colleges which comply with the conditions for recognition set 
forth in Chapter I of these Regulations, and also with the 
further conditions for payment of Grant set forth in this 
Chapter. 

14. (a) The Training College must not be conducted for 
private profit, and must not be farmed out to the principal or 
to any other person. 

{h) The Accounts of the Training College must be kept in 
the form prescribed by the Board, and must be annually pre- 
sented to the Board after being duly audited by a qualified 
Public Accountant and Auditor. 

15. The profession of a particular form of religious belief or 
attendance at religious worship must not be made a condition 
of the appointment or continuance in office of any member of 
the teaching staff or of the governing body of the Training 
College nor of the admission of any student to the Training 
College. 

16. No student may be refused admission to the Training 
College except on reasonable grounds. 

17. Grants will be paid to a Training College satisfying the 
conditions of this Chapter at the rate of 100 I, in respect of 
every complete group of five Recognized Students who have 
completed an approved Course of Training during each year 
ending 31st July, subject to the following limitations : — 



306 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

(a) The Grant paid to any College or Department on ac- 

count of any year shall not exceed one half of the 
total sum which can be shown to the satisfaction of 
the Board to have been paid to persons designated 
as members of the staff under Article 5 (b) of the 
Regulations as salaries on account of services ren- 
dered by them during that year in the supervision 
and direction of the work of the students preparing 
to become Teachers in Secondary Schools. 

(b) The Grant paid to any College or Department on ac- 

count of any year shall not exceed 600 1. 

18. (a) No Training College will be placed on the list of 
Colleges in receipt of Grant, unless either (i) at least ten 
Recognized Students completed a course of training satis- 
factorily during the first year for which Grant is claimed, or 
(ii) the Board are satisfied that the College had an average 
number of not less than ten Students in Training during the 
three years preceding the first year for which Grant is claimed. 

(b) No Grant will be paid to any Training College on 
account of a year ending after July 31, 191 1, if the number 
of Recognized Students completing an approved Course of 
Training falls below ten in each of the three years immediately 
preceding that in respect of which the Grant is claimed ; but 
if the number of students entered at the beginning of the 
following year reaches a minimum of ten, a grant will be pay- 
able in respect of the school year that has elapsed in respect 
of those students who completed their training in that year. 

19. In Training Colleges where both men and women are 
under training the Board may recognize separate departments 
for men and women respectively, provided (i) that the Recog- 
nized Students of each sex are not less than ten in number, and 
(2) that a properly qualified woman is in special charge of the 
women students as principal or mistress of method. 

20. No individual Student may be taken into account for 
more than one year in estimating the Grant payable. 

21. If any of the requirements of these Regulations have 



APPENDIX 307 

not been fulfilled, or have been fulfilled during part of the year 
only, the Board may, nevertheless, pay Grants either without 
deduction or with such deduction as they may think fit. 

22. If any question arises as to the interpretation of these 
Regulations, or as to the fulfillment of any of the conditions of 
Grant, the decision of the Board shall be final. 

List of Qualifications other than Degrees which 
WILL BE Accepted after August i, 191 i, as Quali- 
fying Students for Admission to Training Colleges 

A Tripos Certificate granted by the University of Cam- 
bridge to women, provided that the Examination taken was 
one which, if passed by a man after three years' residence, 
would entitle him to a Degree without further examination. 

A diploma or certificate showing to the satisfaction of the 
Board that the apphcant, if a woman, has fulfilled all the 
conditions which, if the University of Oxford granted degrees 
to women, would entitle her to a degree in that University ; or 
that, under the conditions prescribed by the Delegacy for 
Local Examinations, she has (i) passed the Second Public 
Examination of the University, or (2) obtained Honors in the 
Oxford University Examination for Women in Modern 
Languages. 

A special Honors Certificate of the Higher Local Exami- 
nations (Oxford and Cambridge) granted under the following 
conditions : — 

(i) That the certificate includes at least a pass in two lan- 
guages (other than English) and a pass either in mathematics 
or in logic ; and 

(ii) That the holder either 

(a) has passed in four groups or sections, obtaining a first 
or a second class in at least two of them ; or 

(b) has passed in three groups or sections, obtaining a first 
or a second class in at least two of them, and holds in addition 
either (i) an Oxford or a Cambridge Senior Local Certificate 



308 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

in Honors, including at least one subject not included in the 
three higher local groups or sections, or (2) a Higher Certificate 
of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, 
gained in one year, exclusive of drawing and music, and 
including at least one subject not included in the three Higher 
Local groups or sections. 



List of Qualifications other than Degrees which 
WILL BE Accepted by the Board until 31ST July, 
191 1, AS Qualifying Students for Admission to 
Training Colleges 

A Tripos Certificate granted by the University of Cam- 
bridge to women, provided that the Examination taken was 
one which, if passed by a man after three years' residence, 
would entitle him to a degree without further examination. 
A diploma or certificate showing to the satisfaction of the 
Board that the applicant, if a woman, has fulfilled all the 
conditions which, if the University of Oxford granted degrees 
to women, would entitle her to a degree in that University ; 
or that, under the conditions prescribed by the Delegacy for 
Local Examinations, she has (i) passed the Second Public 
Examination of the University, or (2) obtained Honors in the 
Oxford University Examination for Women in Modern Lan- 
guages. 

The associateship of the Royal College of Science, London. 

The associateship of the City and Guilds of London Insti- 
tute. 

A special Honors Certificate of the Higher Local Exami- 
nations (Oxford and Cambridge) granted under the following 
conditions : — 

(i) That the certificate includes at least a pass in two lan- 
guages (other than English) and a pass either in mathematics 
or in logic ; and 

(ii) That the holder either 



APPENDIX 309 

(a) has passed in four groups or sections, obtaining a first 
or a second class in at least two of them ; or 

(b) has passed in three groups or sections, obtaining a first 
or a second class in at least two of them, and holds in addition 
either (i) an Oxford or a Cambridge Senior Local Certificate 
in Honors, including at least one subject not included in the 
three higher local groups or sections, or (2) a Higher Certifi- 
cate of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board 
gained in one year, exclusive of drawing and music and in- 
cluding at least one subject not included in the three Higher 
Local groups or sections. 

Many universities, working entirely independently of the 
Board of Education, now give a " teacher's diploma " upon 
the satisfactory completion of a year's professional work 
following the university course. The following regulations 
for this diploma, as prescribed by the Universities of London 
and Manchester, may be taken as typical. 

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON 

Regulations for the Examination for the Teacher's 
Diploma 

An Examination for External Students, to be called " The 
Examination for the Teacher's Diploma," shall be held once 
in each year ; and shall commence on the Second Tuesday in 
December. 

The Examination shall be open to Graduates of this 
University, to Graduates of other approved Universities,^ to 
persons who have passed all the Examinations required for 
a degree in other approved Universities, to women who have 
obtained a Tripos certificate granted by the University of 

^ Graduates of other universities must send official documentary 
evidence of their graduation along with their Entry-Form and Fee 



3IO TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Cambridge, and to women who have obtained certificates 
showing that, under the conditions prescribed by the Dele- 
gacy for Local Examinations at Oxford, they have passed the 
second Public Examination of that University, or have 
obtained Honors in the Oxford University Examination for 
Women in Modern Languages. 

Every candidate must, not less than Nine Weeks before 
the Examination, apply to the External Registrar for a Form 
of Entry, which must be returned not less than Eight Weeks 
before the Examination, accompanied by the Candidate's 
Fee. 

Every Candidate entering for this Examination must pay 
a Fee of Five Pounds to the External Registrar.^ If a Candi- 
date withdraws his name not less than eight weeks before 
the Examination, the Fee shall be returned to him. If he 
fails to present himself at the Examination, he shall be allowed 
to enter for the next following Examination in Pedagogy on 
payment of a Fee of Two Pounds Ten Shillings. If he 
retires after the commencement of the Examination, or fails 
to pass it, the full Fee of Five Pounds shall be payable upon 
every reentry. 

Candidates shall be required to state such professional 
training and experience in Teaching as they may have 
had. 

Candidates shall be examined in the following subjects : — 

I. The Principles of Education.^ (Two Papers including 

an Essay.) 

^ Except in the case of Candidates who entered for and failed either to 
present themselves at, or to pass, the Examination in the Art, Theory, 
and History of Teaching, previously to the year 1902. Such candidates 
will, for the present, be allowed to enter for any subsequent Examina- 
tion for the Teacher's Diploma upon payment, at every such entry, of a 
Fee of Two Pounds Ten Shillings, provided that they otherwise comply 
with the current Regulations. 

2 In matters of opinion answers will be judged according to the accu- 
racy of thought and expression displayed, and not with reference to their 
agreement with the writings of any one author or school of authors. 



APPENDIX 311 

The Aims of Education with regard to the individual 
pupil and the community. 

The Endowment of the child as a datum of the edu- 
cational process. The relation of Development 
to Endowment. 

The fundamental aspects of development and their 
interrelations. 

The chief stages in general development; their 
order and mode of succession in children of 
different types. 

The function of the School in regard to general develop- 
ment with special reference to the work of the 
Class-teacher. 

The acquisition of Skill, Knowledge, and Taste: 
the nature and growth of the mental function 
involved in these processes. 

Special Psychology of the instrumental subjects 
(Reading, Writing, and Number). 

The development of spontaneity ; the forms of 
self-expression. 

The development of Conduct ; Will ; Character. 

The characteristics of individual children with regard 
to the foregoing. 

The general psychological conditions of class instruc- 
tion and class management. 

The general principles of method; the forms of 
instruction; the cultivation of Interest and 
Attention. Methods of testing progress. 

The general principles of class management ; Order 
and Discipline. 

Class instruction and organization as a means of 
moral development ; the relation of the teacher 
to individual children. 

The conditions of healthy school life and class work; 
mental economy and hygiene. 

The organization and conduct of the school in rela- 
tion to the work of the Class-teacher. 



312 TRAINING OE TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

II. Methodology. (One paper.) 

Methodology; with special reference to the method- 
ology of a special subject or group of subjects 
of instruction.^ 

III. History of Education. (One Paper.) 

(a) Historical Evolution of Educational Ideals. 

(b) The Work and Writings of Great Teachers. 

(c) The Study of School Systems in operation at 

Home and Abroad. 

Special Periods : Writers and Systems under 
(a) , (b) , (c) , to be varied from time to time.^ 

IV. Practical Skill in Teaching. 

This will be tested by means of a lesson to be given 
to a class in the presence of the Examiner at 
some School in London; the lesson will, if 
necessary, be followed by discussion. Special 
arrangements will be made on each occasion. 

Candidates will be required to prepare, for presenta- 
tion to the Examiners on the first day of the 
Examination, full teaching notes of four lessons, 
taken from two, at least, of the following 
groups of subjects : ^ — 

1 Sufficient choice of questions will be afforded to enable a candidate 
to confine himself to the methodology of a single subject (including the 
necessary references to subjects connected with it in the school curricu- 
lum). 

2 The Special Subjects for 1909 will be : — 

Herbart: Allgemeine Padagogik (any translation). 
The Outline of Educational History in England during the 
Nineteenth Century. 
The Special Subject for igio will be : — 

The Republic of Plato and its bearing on the development of 
modern educational thought and practice. 
The Special Subject for 191 1 will be : — 

The Republic of Plato and its bearing on modern educational 
thought and practice. 
^ The date on which these Notes must be received by the External 
Registrar will be given on the Form of Entry. 



APPENDIX 313 

(a) Language and Literature. 

(b) History and Geography. 

(c) Mathematics. 

(d) Natural History and Physical Science. 
The notes should indicate (i) the age of the pupils 

for whom the lesson is intended; (ii) the 
previous knowledge which they are assumed 
to possess; (iii) the diagrams, maps, apparatus, 
or other visible illustrations which it is pro- 
posed to use. 

In giving the lesson, candidates will be expected 
to follow, in the main, the course described 
in the notes. 

The Examiners may require a Candidate to give 
a second lesson if in their judgment a second 
lesson be necessary ; in which case the Exam- 
iners shall select for the subject of the lesson 
a particular topic from a branch or branches of 
knowledge named by the Candidate. 

The Examination, which shall be both written and practical, 
shall extend over three days, and shall be conducted as 
follows : — 

Written Examination 
Tuesday, 

.,, . >• Principles of Education. 

Ajiernoon, 2 to 5 ) '^ 

Wednesday. 

Morning, 10 to 1. Special Methodology. 
Afternoon, 2 to 5. History of Education. 



Practical and Oral Examination 

Practical Skill in Teaching and in the Management of a Class. 

[This part of the Examination will be held, if practicable, in the 
same week as the Written Examination, the place, and hour 
for holding it being announced previously to the conclusion of 
such Written Examination.] 



314 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Candidates shall not be approved by the Examiners unless 
they have shown a competent knowledge in all the subjects 
of examination, and have given satisfactory evidence of practi- 
cal skill in teaching. 

In the course of the second week following the conclusion 
of the Examination, the Examiners shall publish the names 
of the Candidates who have passed, arranged in alphabetical 
order, and shall indicate, by distinguishing marks placed 
against their names, the Candidates (if any) who excel in 
the practical or written parts of the Examination, or in both. 

A Certificate to be called the " Teacher's Diploma," 
under the Seal of the University, and signed by the Chancellor, 
shall be delivered to each Candidate who has passed, after 
the Report of the Examiners shall have been approved by 
the Senate. 

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER 
Regulations for the Teacher's Diploma 

The Teacher's Diploma is designed to give a general course 
of pedagogic principles and practice to meet the wants of those 
who design to become teachers in schools. It is primarily 
instituted for teachers in Secondary Schools, but it also affords 
opportunities of studying the methods and practice of Pri- 
mary Schools. It is recognized by the Board of Education 
as a qualification for certificated Teachers. (See Education 
Code 60 (6).i) 

The Course of Training is planned so as to satisfy the re- 
quirements of the Board of Education for the Training of 
Teachers in Secondary Schools, and students will be expected 
to fulfill such requirements relating to practical work as the 
Board may from time to time impose through their Regulation. 
(Candidates should procure a copy of these Regulations, price 
I d., Wyman and Sons.) 

1 Wjmaan and Sons, Ltd. 



APPENDIX 315 

1. Candidates before receiving the Diploma must have 
graduated or passed the Final Examination for a degree in this 
or some other University of the United Kingdom, provided 
that a candidate who has taken Education as a subject for his 
degree may not receive the Diploma until he has presented and 
passed in some subject other than Education, not being a 
subject previously taken by him, as prescribed for the Final 
Examination for the degree of B.A. or B.Sc. 

2. The examination for the Diploma will be divided into two 
parts, (a) and (6). 

(a) Written Examination. Candidates will be required 

to pass a written examination in the fol- 
lowing subjects : — 
(i) The Mental and Physical Life of boys and 

girls at school, 
(ii) Systematic Review of the Principles of Educa- 
tion. 

(iii) Portions of the History of Education, with 
special books as prescribed. 

(iv) Method in teaching (including the Preparation 
of Lessons) and School Management. 

(b) Practical Examination. Candidates will be tested 

in the practice of Education : 
(i) By reports by the Professors of Education on 
their work in teaching during their period 
of training, 
(ii) By teaching before the Examiners and sub- 
mitting to them written records of their 
work in Schools. 

Before admission to an examination, candidates will be 
required to pay a fee of £2, and to present certificates of satis- 
factory attendance on the above subjects. 

3. Candidates will be required to undergo a Course of 
Training in the Department of Education in this University 
(a) for at least one year, or (b) for periods amounting all to- 



3l6 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

gether to not less than one year under circumstances which, in 
the opinion of the University, render the periods at least equiv- 
alent to a continuous year. This year of Training must be 
taken at a date subsequent to passing the Final Examination 
for a degree (or the equivalents thereto described above), 
provided that the Senate shall have power to allow a candidate 
to undertake his training for the Diploma though he has not 
completed one of his courses for the degree, such degree 
course to be pursued in the same year as the Diploma course. 

4. Candidates who desire to offer evidence of special ac- 
quaintance with methods of teaching particular branches of a 
school curriculum, or with methods of teaching in any par- 
ticular t3^e of school, will be afforded opportunity of display- 
ing this acquaintance in the examination. An indication of 
special qualifications for teaching one or more such branches 
may be given in the Diploma. 

5. The prescribed course of training shall include attend- 
ance for the entire school day for a period amounting to three 
school weeks; this attendance shall be made during Univer- 
sity vacation. Either in this practice or in practice taken dur- 
ing the session at least forty hours' attendance shall be made in 
an approved Secondary School ; and candidates who take the 
Diploma for the special purpose of teaching in Secondary 
Schools must spend two thirds of the teaching practice either 
in Secondary Schools or in the Fielden Demonstration Schools. 

6. The examination in practical work is held in May or June, 
and the written examination in June. Equal importance 
will attach to each part of the examination. The list will be 
divided into two divisions, I and II. The names of candidates 
who have attained a specially high standard in both parts of 
the examination may be marked as having passed with dis- 
tinction. 

In most cases some observation and practice teaching are 
required in schools that are more or less under the control of the 
university authorities. In other cases the diploma is given for 



APPENDIX 317 

theoretical work only. The Department of Education of the 
University of Manchester is the only one in England that 
maintains a demonstration and practice school of its own. 

England is wide awake to the problem of training teachers 
for the secondary schools, but, with her usual conservatism, 
she is disposed to proceed cautiously until experience shall 
have given a basis for judgment. 

Scotland. — The prevailing standards for the training of 
teachers for the secondary schools are given in the following 
extracts from the Regulations for the Preliminary Education, 
Training and Certification of Teachers for Various Grades of 
Schools, 190S, issued by the Scotch Education Department. 

The classification of schools is as follows : — 

Primary School. — A school or a department of a school 
giving an education based entirely upon English to pupils 
who are, as a rule, below the age of 14. A Primary School 
may contain individual pupils or small sections of scholars 
who are being instructed on the lines of an Intermediate or 
even, in exceptional circumstances, of a Secondary School. 

Intermediate School. — A school providing at least a three- 
years course of secondary education (including, as a rule, 
instruction in a language or languages other than English) 
to pupils who, on entering, have reached the stage of attain- 
ment in elementary subjects indicated in Article 29, I, of the 
Code ('^ qualifying examination "). 

Secondary School. — A school providing at least a five- 
years course of secondary education beyond the qualifying 
examination stage. 

An Intermediate School should retain its pupils until 
at least the age of 15 to 16, and the normal attainments of the 
pupils at that age should be those indicated by the Inter- 
mediate Certificate. 



3l8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

A Secondary School should retain its pupils till at least 
the age of 17 to 1 8, and no pupil who has not qualified for the 
award of some form of Leaving Certificate, or for one of the 
alternative Technical or Commercial Certificates, can be 
held to have completed the course satisfactorily. 

Though the education of the Intermediate School is of 
the nature of secondary, as distinguished from primary 
education, the choice of subjects and the relative importance 
to be given to them at various stages of the curriculum may 
properly vary within certain limits according as the school 
is one providing a three-years course or one providing a five- 
years course. The curriculum of each type of school should 
be so arranged as to present, at the age at which the pupils 
normally leave, a certain unity and completeness. 

On the other hand it is important that as between the 
Secondary School and the various Intermediate Schools of the 
same district there should be no unnecessary divergence of 
curriculum in the earlier stages, so that transference from the 
one to the other may not be impeded. 



Teachers of Higher Subjects 

42. Persons who at or before the date of these Regulations 
(7th June, 1906) were actually serving in recognized posi- 
tions in Intermediate and Secondary Schools under the in- 
spection of the Department will rank as specially qualified 
teachers of the relative subjects in terms of the following 
Articles.^ But, except with regard to such persons, the De- 
partment may at any time require, as a condition of efiiciency, 
that any or every teacher appointed to the staff of such 

^ Up to July 31, 1909, a similar privilege will be accorded to all who 
have given at least a year's satisfactory service in such positions. There- 
after this privilege will be limited to persons qualified for recognition as 
Certificated Teachers, or who have been provisionally recognized by the 
Department as Assistant Teachers in Intermediate or Secondary Schools, 
before the said date. 



APPENDIX 319 

schools shall produce evidence of having been properly trained 
with reference to the particular subject he is to teach. 

43. Applicants for recognition as specially qualified 
teachers of the undermentioned Subjects in Intermediate 
and Secondary Schools may or may not be holders of the 
General Certificate.^ Subject to professional training and 
probation (Articles 44 and 52), and subject also to the right 
of a Provincial Committee to recommend exceptions in indi- 
vidual cases, the following are the requirements which will 
be necessary for such recognition : — 

(a) In the case of English the applicant must either (i) 
hold the degree of an approved University with Hon- 
ors in English; or, (ii) having taken an ordinary 
degree,^ produce Certificates showing that, during his 
University course, he has given attendance at the 
Ordinary and the Honors Classes of English Litera- 
ture, and at the Ordinary Class of History, and has 
displayed in the work of each of these such proficiency 
as may, in the opinion of the Professor or Lecturer, 
be reasonably required from one who is to teach 
English in Intermediate and Secondary Schools. In 
addition, whether applying under (i) or under (ii), 
he must produce a similar Certificate of satisfactory 
attendance and work in connection with an ordinary 
course in Geography, extending over one session.^ 

(h) In the case of any Modern Language other than 
English, he must, after obtaining the relative Higher 

^ [The General Certificate qualifies for teaching in Primary Schools.] 
^ Or, alternatively, such University course as the Provincial Commit- 
tee may, with the sanction of the Department, approve as equivalent to 
an ordinary degree. 

^ Where no Ordinary University Course of Geography is available, 
the Provincial Committee shall establish or shall recognize an Ordinary 
Course of Geography outside the University, and where no Higher or 
Honors University Course of Geography is available, the Provincial 
Committee may, if they see fit, establish or recognize a Higher Course 
of Geography outside the University. 



320 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Grade pass at the Leaving Certificate Exami- 
nation, attend University Classes in the language 
chosen during at least two sessions, one of which 
must be spent in an Honors Class, and must obtain a 
satisfactory report on his work from the Professor or 
Lecturer as in (a). He must also submit to such 
further test (oral or other) of knowledge of the lan- 
guage as the Department may impose, and must 
either before or after attending the University Classes 
specified above — spend a year of study, under con- 
ditions approved by the Department, in some coun- 
try in which the language in question is spoken.'- 
Such year of study may form part of a curriculum 
approved for Students in Full Training (Article i8). 
If the applicant does not hold the ordinary degree of 
an approved University, he must produce evidence of 
having undergone such course of University culture 
as, taken along with his year of study abroad, the 
Provincial Committee may, with the sanction of 
the Department, approve as equivalent to an 
ordinary degree. 

(c) In the case of Latin and Greek, he must hold the 
degree of an approved University (see Article 15) 
with Honors in Classics. 

(d) In the case of Mathematics, he must hold a similar 
degree with Honors in Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy, or a degree in Pure or Applied Science, 
the standard for which in Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy shall have been accepted by the Depart- 
ment as sufficient, and he must also have under- 
gone an adequate discipline in the methods of Ex- 
perimental Science, testified to by a pass in Science 
at the Leaving Certificate Examination, or by other 
evidence satisfactory to the Department. 

* Until further notice the requirement as to residence abroad will not 
be strictly enforced. 



APPENDIX 321 

(e) In the case of Science, he must hold a similar degree 
in Pure Science (Physical or Natural) and must also 
have undergone an adequate discipline in the meth- 
ods of Experimental Science, testified to as in (d). 
(/) To meet the case of Schools which may require 
specially qualified Teachers of History or of Geog- 
raphy, recognition of special qualification will be 
granted : — 

(i) For History, if the applicant holds the degree 
of an approved University with Honors in 
History; or, alternatively, if, being qualified 
for recognition in English, he has also attended 
an Honors Course of History, extending over 
one session, and can produce a satisfactory 
report on his work as in (a). 
(ii) For Geography, if the applicant, being qualified 
under any of the preceding sections or under 
subsection (i) of this section, has attended a 
Higher Course of Geography, extending over 
one session and has obtained a satisfactory 
report on his work, as in (a) . 

44. Applicants for recognition in terms of this Chapter, if 
they be not already holders of the General Certificate, m.ust 
have undergone an approved course of professional training, 
theoretical and practical, extending over such period as the 
Provincial Committee may propose and the Department may 
sanction. This course must include adequate instruction and 
practice in the methods of teaching the particular subject, 
or subjects, for which recognition is asked. In all cases, 
applicants during the period of practical training must also 
receive instruction as to the organization and management of 
Intermediate and Secondary Schools in general, and they will 
be expected to make themselves acquainted with the actual 
working of schools of this class in connection with the Training 
Center to which they are attached. 



322 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

45. The holder of a General Certificate, provided he fulfills 
the requirements set forth in Article 43, and provided his course 
of professional training has included training and instruction 
as described in Article 44, may receive an indorsement of 
qualification to teach any of the higher objects enumerated 
above. Such indorsement may be obtained either on com- 
pletion of the period of Full Training (Chapter III), or at any 
subsequent time on fulfillment of the required conditions.^ 

46. Persons other than holders of a General Certificate 
may, with the approval of the Provincial Committee, omit 
from their course of professional training (Article 44) practice 
in teaching all or certain of the Primary subjects, but no Cer- 
tificate granted in these circumstances will carry with it a 
qualification as teacher of Primary Schools, nor v/ill the holder 
be reckoned as a Certificated Teacher for the purposes of the 
Elementary School Teachers (Superannuation) Act. 

Teachers of Special Subjects 

47. Persons who at or before the date of these Regulations 
(7th June, 1906) were actually serving as recognized teachers 
of certain special subjects (cf. Art. 37 (b)), will rank as recog- 
nized teachers of these subjects in terms of this Article. But, 
except with regard to such persons, the Department may at 
any time require, as a condition of recognition, that any or 
every such teacher shall produce evidence of having been 
properly trained, with particular reference to the subject he 
is to teach. Special certificates (or, in the case of Certificated 
Teachers, indorsements upon their Certificates) of qualifica- 

1 Where, in any individual case, it can be shown to the satisfaction 
of the Provincial Committee that a person otherwise qualified has been 
debarred through special causes from fulfilling the precise requirements 
specified in Article 43, an indorsement or some corresponding form of 
recognition may be granted on the production of other evidence of corre- 
sponding attainment, together with evidence of sufi&cient skill in teaching 
the higher subject in question, provided such evidence is approved as 
satisfactory by the Department. 



APPENDIX 323 

tion as teachers of these subjects will be granted by the De- 
partment to the holders of Diplomas recognized by the 
Department for the purpose/ provided that the holder of the 
Diploma has in each case reached a certain standard of general 
education, satisfactory to the Department, before entering 
upon his Diploma course; has successfully completed such 
part of the general course of professional training for teachers 
(Articles 19 and 22) as may be prescribed, and has served the 
period of probation required by Article 53. 

48. Such Special Certificates will not confer recognition as a 
Certificated Teacher for the purposes of the Elementary 
School Teachers (Superannuation) Act, nor will they be ac- 
cepted as a qualification for employment on the general staff 
of any school of any grade. But they may be held along with 
the General Certificate (Article 33), and a holder may at any 
time qualify for the award of a General Certificate on com- 
pleting the prescribed conditions. 

^ The Diplomas which will be made the basis of a special qualification 
are as follows : — 

(a) The Diploma of a Central School of Art — for a special qualifica- 
tion to teach Drawing ; 

(b) The Diploma of a Central Technical College or Institute — for a 
special qualification to teach any branch of applied Science or Technical 
Industry to which the Diploma is relative ; 

(c) The Diploma of a College of Agriculture — for a special qualifica- 
tion to teach Agriculture or Horticulture ; 

{d) The Diploma of a Commercial College — for a special qualification 
to teach any Commercial subject to which the Diploma is relative ; 

(e) The Diploma of a School of Domestic Economy — for a special 
qualification to teach any branch of Domestic Economy to which the 
Diploma is relative; 

(/) The Diploma of a Physical Training College — for a special quali- 
fication to conduct Physical Exercises and School Gymnastics ; 

(g) Sufficient attendance at a recognized course of instruction and 
satisfactory proof of craftsmanship — for a special qualification to give 
instruction in woodwork, iron work, or other recognized manual occupa- 
tion for schools ; 

(h) The Diploma of a University or of a recognized Central Institu- 
tion — for a special qualification to teach Music. 



324 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

The institutional means for the training of teachers may 
be briefly described as follows. The Committee of Council on 
Education in Scotland is the supreme authority on educational 
affairs. In 1905 this Committee provided for the appoint- 
ment of four provincial committees on the training of teachers 
for both primary and secondary schools. These committees 
were established in connection with the Universities of St. 
Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. The mem- 
bers were chosen so as to represent not merely the University 
but all of the important educational interests of the district 
concerned. For example, the committee organized in con- 
nection with St. Andrews University consisted of four mem- 
bers to be elected by the University Court, one representing 
the Dundee Technical Institute, three representing the School 
Board of Dundee, nine representing various other school 
boards, two representing the Managers of the more important 
secondary schools, three to be selected by the members al- 
ready mentioned, and finally His Majesty's Chief Inspector of 
Schools, who holds membership without a vote. These com- 
mittees may provide for the establishment of training colleges 
in connection with any educational institution within the dis- 
trict. Denominational colleges may receive aid from the Gov- 
ernment for this purpose, but they must submit to inspection 
by Government oflScials and must meet all the conditions 
prescribed. These colleges have joined heartily in the work. 

A few extracts from the Minutes of the Council are of 
particular interest, for the Scotch system of training teachers 
for the secondary schools is especially rich in suggestions for 
the United States. 



APPENDIX 



325 



Minute of the Committee of Council on Education 
IN Scotland, dated 30TH January, 1905, providing for 
THE Establishment of Committees for the Training 
of Teachers 

The object which the Secretary for Scotland has in view in 
establishing Committees for the training of teachers under the 
provisions of the accompanying Minute, is to enlarge and im- 
prove existing facilities for the training of teachers. 

In doing so, he desires at the same time to insure that 
that training shall be brought into as close connection with 
the University organizations as the attainments of the stu- 
dents upon entering admit of, and to provide means whereby 
School Boards and others directly interested in the question of 
the supply of teachers shall be in a position to secure due 
consideration for their views. 

The Secretary for Scotland recognizes to the full the value 
of the services rendered to the country by various church 
organizations, in the administration of funds for the training of 
teachers in the case of the existing Training Colleges. The 
Minute, therefore, makes no change necessary in the position 
of these Colleges, but it provides a means whereby transfer- 
ence of management to the newly constituted Committees 
may be easily effected under adequate guarantees for the con- 
tinuance of the reUgious instruction at present given in these 
Colleges. 

Each Committee shall have power to provide, whether in 
University Classes or otherwise, courses of instruction suit- 
able for the training of teachers (including teachers for Second- 
ary Schools). These courses may include, if the Committee 
so determine, instruction in religious subjects. They shall 
be held in towns where a University or a part of a University 
is situated, but the Committee shall also have power to insti- 
tute, with the consent of the Department, subsidiary courses 



326 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

of training at approved centers in connection with either a 
Secondary or a Higher Grade School. 

Each Committee shall have power to appoint officers at 
suitable salaries either for purposes of instruction or of 
discipline, and to prescribe courses of studies for the students 
collectively or for individual students, as well as to make 
regulations for the proper behavior and conduct of the stu- 
dents. 

It shall be a condition of Parliamentary Grant to any School 
Board or of a grant under any Minute of the Department to 
any endowed school that the School Board or the Governors, 
as the case may be, shall grant to the Committees instituted 
under this Minute such access to their schools and such facili- 
ties for practice in teaching as may be agreed upon or as may, 
if necessary, be determined by the Department, who shall 
also determine what payment shall be made for the use of 
such schools. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Balfour, Graham, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and 

Ireland. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1903. 
Beier, Adolph, Die hohere Schulen in Preussen. Halle, Waisen- 

haus. 1909. 
BOHM, A., Bericht iiber die Thatigkeit des Seminars. Aus dem 
pddagogischen Universitdts-Seminar zu Jena. Dreizehntes 
Heft. 
Bolton, F. E., The relation of the department of education to 
other departments in colleges and universities. Journal oj 
Pedagogy, 19:137-176. 

The Secondary School System of Germany. Appleton. 1900. 

Brzoska, H. G., Die Notwendigkeit padagogischer Seminare auf 
der Universi tat und ihre zweckmassige Einrichtung. Herausge- 
ben von Dr. Wilhehn Rein. Leipsic, Barth. 1887. 
CuBBERLEY, E. P., The certification of teachers. Fifth Yearbook 
of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. 
Part II. 
Dewey, J., The relation of theory to practice in education. Third 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of 
Education. Part I. 
Dexter, E. G., The present state and personnel of the secondary 
teaching force in the United States. Fourth Yearbook of the 
National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. Part I. 
Farrington, F. E., Practice work in university departments of 
education. Observation and Practice Teaching in College and 
University Departments of Education. Published by the Na- 
tional Society of College Teachers of Education. 1909. 

French Secondary Schools. Longmans. 1910. 

327 



328 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Find LAY, J. J., Demonstration schools : their purpose, methods, 

results. Educational Times. April, 1910. 
Frick, Otto, Das Seminarium Prceceptorum aus den Franckes- 

chen Stiftungen zu Halle. Halle, Waisenhaus. 1883. 
Padagogische und didaktische Abhandlungen. Halle, Waisen- 
haus. 1883. 
Friedel, Otto, Zehn Jahre Seminararbeit. Lehrprohen und 

Lehrgdnge. Heft 66. 
Fries, Wilhelm, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt. 

Miinchen, Beck. 1896. (New edition in preparation.) The 

standard work on the subject in German. 
Die padagogische Abhandlungen im Gymnasialseminar. 

Lehrprohen und Lehrgdnge. Heft 88. 
Die neue Ordnung fiir die praktische Ausbildung der Kandi- 

daten des hoheren Lehramts in Preussen vom Marz, 1908. 

Lehrprohen und Lehrgdnge. Heft 96. 
GuHRAUER, Dr., Aus der Praxis der Seminarsitzungen. Lehr- 
prohen und Lehrgdnge. Heft 96. 
Hinsdale, B. A., The training of teachers in the United States, in 

Butler's Education in the United States. I, 359. 
Holmes, M. J., The present provision for the education and 

training of secondary teachers in the United States. Fourth 

Yearhook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of 

Education. Part I. 
Jacobs, W. B., Practice teaching at Brown University. Published 

by the National Society of CoUege Teachers of Education, 1909. 
Johnston, C. H., Tendencies in college departments of education. 

Educational Review, 38 : 186. 
Lange, a. F., The training of teachers in secondary schools. 

Western Journal of Education, 12 : 28. 
Lexis, W., Die Reform des hoheren Schulwesens in Preussen. 

HaUe, Waisenhaus. 1902. 
Das Unterrichtswesen im Deutschen Reich. BerHn, Asher 

and Co. 1904. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 329 

Loos, J., Die Ausbildung der Kandidaten des hoheren Schulamtes 
in Osterreich und Deutschland nach ihren hauptsachlichsten 
concreten Gestaltungen. Wien, Druck von Karl Gerold's 
Sohn. 1892. 

LucKEY, G. W. A., Professional Training of Secondary Teachers. 
New York, Macmillan. 1903. 

MoRSCH, H., Das hohere Lehramt in Deutschland und Osterreich. 
Leipsic, Teubner. 1909. An excellent presentation of the 
subject from many points of view. 

Neff, K., Das padagogische Seminar. Miinchen, Beck. 1908. 

Paulsen, F., Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts. Leipsic, 
Veit u. Comp. 

Rein, W., Zur Aufgabe und SteUung der Padagogik an unseren 
Universitaten. Aus dem pddagogischen Universitdts-Seminar 
zuJena. Dreizehntes Heft. 

RiCHTER, G., Zur Frage der Gymnasialseminare. Lehrprohen und 
Lehrgdnge. Heft 44. 

Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools. Longmans. 1905. 

The function of the university in the training of teachers. 

Teachers College Record, I, 1:1. 

Professional training of teachers for the higher schools of Ger- 
many. Ed. Rev., 14: 17. 

The training of teachers for the secondary schools. Ed. Rev., 

17:364. 

Salmon, L. M., Training teachers in France. Ed. Rev., 20 : ^Bi^,. 

Sandieord, p.. The training of teachers in England and Wales. 
Teachers College, Columbia University. 1910. 

Schiller, H., Padagogische Seminarien fiir das hohere Lehramt. 
Leipsic, Reisland. 1890. 

Schmidt, — , Die Gegner der padagogishen Seminare. Lehr- 
prohen und Lehrgdnge. Heft 84. 

Snedden, D., The new scheme for the training of teachers in Scot- 
land. Ed. Rev., 39 : 433. 

Strayer, G., Observations in connection with college and univer- 



33© TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

sity schools or departments of education. Published by the 
National Society of College Teachers of Education. 1909. 

Sutton, W. S., The organization of the department of education in 
relation to the other departments in colleges and universities. 
Journal of Pedagogy, 19 : 81. 

Wegener, P., Mittheilungen aus dem padagogischen Seminar zu 
Greifswald. Lehrproben und Lehrgange. Heft 99. 

WiESE, L., Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen. Berlin, Wiegandt 
und Grieben. 

Handbuch fiir Lehrer hoherer Schulen. Leipsic, Teubner. 1906. 

Professional training of high school teachers. Report of Committee 
of Indiana Council of Education. Prepared by State Superin- 
tendent F. A. Cotton for the St. Louis Exhibit. 

Kalendar fiir das hohere Schulwesen Preussens und einiger anderer 
deutscher Staaten. Breslau, Trewendt und Granier. 

Report of an inquiry into the Conditions of Service of Teachers 
in English and Foreign Secondary Schools. Presented to the 
Council of the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters 
in Secondary Schools on the 6th of January, 1910. 

The Schoolmasters' Yearbook and Directory. 

Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen. 

Report of the Committee of Seventeen on the Professional Prepara- 
tion of High School Teachers. Proceedings of N.E.A., 1907. 
pp. 521-668. 



INDEX 



Academic training, in Germany, 126, 
i8g; in United States, 202, 261, 266. 

Advantages of plan for training 
teacliers, 279. 

Alabama, 209. 

Appendix, 293. 

Appointment of candidates, 182. 

Arkansas, 209 ; University of, 240. 

Austria, 293. 

Auxiliary school, 5. 

Berlin, 112; University of, 151. 

Bibliography, 327. 

Board, county (Regierung), 19; pro- 
vincial (JProvinzialschulkollegium) , 
19, IIS, 146, 173; examining, 35; 
of Education in England, 297. 

Bonn, University of, 153. 

Braunschweig, 180. 

Breslau, University of, 120, 153. 

Brown University, 241, 242, 290. 

Brzoska, 84, 167. 

Burgerschule, 5, 27, 86, 119. 

CaUfomia, 210, 231, 232, 233, 290; 
University of, 213, 241, 242. See 
also Leland Stanford Jr. University. 

Candidates, academic training of, 126, 
189; appointment of, 182; assign- 
ment of, 62, 68; character of, 195; 
in Prohejahr, 145 ; in seminarium 
prcBceptorum, 123, 193; qualifica- 
tions of, 35, 61, 123, 195; profes- 
sional training of, 61, 125, 148, 180, 
190, 202. 

Celebrations, 86, 94, 102. 

Certificate, 57; conditional, 25, 32; 
grades of, 25, 29, 31, 40, 56, 73; 
leaving, 12, 35; life, 277. 

Certification of teachers, for Prussian 
schools, 20; for American schools, 
207 ; standards of, 208, 234. 

Chicago University, 239, 241. 



Church and school, 21, 23, 76, 77, 

Cincinnati University, 239. 

Clark University, 238. 

College, 237, 251, 266, 270, 276. 

Colorado, 213; University of, 241. 

Columbia University, 238, 239, 241. 

Commission, examining, 24, 34; juris- 
diction of, 35. 

Commissioner of Education, Report 
of, 238. 

Committee of Seventeen, Report of, 
231, 233, 234, 257. 

Conference, 90, 96, 108. 

Connecticut, 214. 

Cooperation of college and school, 270. 

Cornell University, 238. 

Courses in education, 151, 193, 240. 

Criticism, of model lessons, 132, 139; 
of practice teaching, 139, 197. 

Criticum, 85. 

Curriculum, of boys' Gymnasium, 9; 
of boys' Realgymnasium, 10; of 
boys' Oherrealschnle, 11; of girls' 
higher school, 13; of girls' Gym- 
nasium, 15; oi girls' Realgymnasium 
16; of girls' Oberrealschule, 16; of 
Lehrerinnenseminar, 17. 

Denmark, 294. 

Departments of education, 237. 

Development, lines of, 72. 

Dewey, 264. 

Diplomas, recognition of, 231. 

Director of seminar, 120, 173, 175, 196. 

Discontinuance of seminar, 200. 

Dissertation, Doctor's, 27, 29, 53. 

District of Columbia, 214. 

Doctor of philosophy, degree of, 21, 24, 

27> 37, 73, 190. 
Donath, 151. 

Edict of 1810, 21. See also Regula- 
tions. 



331 



332 



INDEX 



Education, study of, 149, 192, 240. 

Electives, 8. 

Elementary schools, 3, 18; kinds of, 4. 

England, 297. 

Erlangen, University of, 149, 150, 154. 

Examination, admission to, 37 ; ap- 
plication for, 36 ; for specified posi- 
tion, 27, 29, 73; general, 39; leav- 
ing, 12, 57; oral, 54; pro facultate 
docendi ; 24, rules of, 34; second, 58; 
special subject, 40; state, 123, 194, 
276; subjects of, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 
38, 72; supplementary, 31, 32, 37, 
58; written, 72, 73; extension, 59. 

Facultas docendi, 24. 

Farrington, 264. 

Fees, examination, 60; tuition, 5. 

Fichte, 21. 

Finland, 293. 

Florida, 214. 

Fortbildungsschule, 4, 6, 18. 

France, 295. 

Francke, 115, 116, 118, 120. 

Franckesche Stifkmgcn, 115, 120, 123, 

143. 174- 
Frauenanstali, 4, 17. 
Freiburg, University of, 155. 
Frick, 118, 120, 132, 173, 176. 
Fries, 78, 113, 119, 120, 174, 177, 178. 

Gedike, 113. 

Gesner, 78. 

Giessen, 173; University of, 155. 

Girls' schools, 4, 12, 15, 16, 17, 116. 

Gottingen, 78; University of, 156. 

Graefe, 84. 

Grants to schools, 281, 301, 305, 326. 

Greifswald, University of, 157. 

Gymnasial seminar, 75, 112, 115, 148, 
172, 17s, 180. 

Gymnasium, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 26, 108, 
no, 113, 114, 116, 118, 119, 145, 
168; curriculum of boys', 9; cur- 
riculum of girls', IS ; number of, in 
Prussia, 8. 

Halle, 77, 79, 112, 115, 120, 121; Uni- 
versity of, 157. 
Hartman, no. 
Harvard University, 239, 241, 284. 



Heidelberg, 87; University of, 158. 

Herbart, 82, 88, 107, 167. 

Herbst, 81. 

Hesse, 180. 

Heyne, 78. 

Higher schools, 4, 7. 

High school teachers, quaHfications of, 

232. 
Hilfsschule, 5. 
Hofmann, 109. 

IlUnois, University of, 238, 239. 
Impressions of German system, 189. 
Indiana, 215; University of, 239, 241. 
Institutions for training teachers, in 

England, 299, 302 ; in Prussia, 75 ; 

in Scotland, 324; in United States, 

236. 
Iowa, 239 ; University of, 240. 

Jena, Gymnasium at, 173 ; regulations 
for seminar and practice school, 92 ; 
University of, 78, 79, 84, 91, 107, 
113, 159, 167, 168, 171. 

Johns Hopkins University, 238. 

Jungmann, no. 

Kansas, 216. 

Kant, 172. 

Kiel, University of, 160. 

Konigsberg, 82 ; University of, 160. 

Kramer, 81. 

Latin school (Latina), 116, 118, 145. 

Laws, school, 209. 

Lehman, no. 

Lehrerinnenseminar, curriculum of, 17. 

Lehrproben und Lehrgange, 119, 121. 

Leipsic, 107; University of, no, 161, 

167, 173- 
Leland Stanford Jr. University, 213, 

239- 
Library, 143. 
Life certificate, 277. 
London University, 309. 
Luckey, 237. 
Lyzeum, 17. 

Madchenschule, 4, 17 ; curriculum of, 13. 
Manchester University, 314. 
Marburg, University of, 163. 



INDEX 



333 



Massachusetts, 236. 
Mecklenburg, 180. 
Michigan, University of, 238. 
Ministry, of education, 3, 18, 34, 123; 

of trade and industry, 18. 
Minnesota, 217; University of, 240. 
Minutes of seminar meeting, 136. 
Missouri, University of, 240, 241. 
MiUelschiile, 4, s, 132. 
Model lessons, 132, 135, 139. 
Modern language teaching, 191. 
Monroe, 282. 
Monta,na, 218. 

Munich, University of, 149, 163. 
Miinster, University of, 165. 

Nebraska, 218; University of, 240. 

Nevada, 218; University of, 240. 

New England, 233. 

New Hampshire, 219. 

New York, 233 ; University of, 238, 

_23Q- 
Niemeyer, 80. 

Normal schools, 17, 236, 239. 
North Carohna, 220. 
North Dakota, 220. 
Northwestern University, 238. 
Norway, 295. 

Oberrealschule, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 116, 
14s; curriculum of boys', 11; cur- 
riculum of girls', 16; number of, in 
Prussia, 8. 

Oherschulkollegium, 113. 

Objections to plan for training teachers, 
283. 

Observation, 64, 119, 132, 197, 240, 
242, 269. 

Ohio, 221 ; University of (Athens), 
238; State University of, 239, 241. 

Ontario, 283. 

Opinion and practice, 148. 

Oregon, 221; University of, 241. 

Pedagogical seminar, 82, no, 113, 148, 

149. 
Pedagogicum, 85. 
Pennsylvania, 222. 
Pensions, 186. 
Period of training, in Prussia, 180, 201 ; 

in United States, 259. 



Plan for training, 266. 

Practical professional training, in 

Prussia, 61, 195; in United States, 

240, 263, 268. 
Practice school, 86, 97, 150, 167, 168, 

169, 170, 179, 286; regulations for, 

at Jena, 92. 
Practice teaching, 64, 86, 134, 139, 

148, 168, 178, 196, 199, 240, 242. 
Pradicum, 85, 88, 95, 108, 109. 
Principal, high school, 271, 272. 
Private schools, 8, 276, 280, 299, 324. 
Probejakr, 24, 27, 32, 33, 61, 67, 68, 

91, 120, 131, 13s, 144, 178, 180, 200, 

202. 
Probestunden, 132, 135, 139, 140. 
Professional standing, 183. 
Professional training, practical, 61, 148, 

149, 167, 180, 190, 240, 263, 268; 
theoretical, 125, 192, 202, 240, 263, 
267. 

Professor, of education, 238, 272; title 

of, 184. 
Progymnasimn, 4, 12. 
Providence high school, 290. 
Provincial school board {Provinzial- 

schulkollegium) , 19, 115, 146, 173. 
Prussian schools, 3. 

Qualifications of teachers, before 1810, 
20; in 1831, 25; in 1866, 28; in 
1887, 31 ; in 1890, 33 ; in 1898, Z5 ; 
changes in, 72; of high school 
teachers, 232. 

Queens University, 283. 

Realgymnasium, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 119, 
168; curriculum of boys', 10; cur- 
riculum of girls', 16 ; number of, in 
Prussia, 8. 

Realpro gymnasium, 4, 12. 

Realschule, 4, s, 8, 12, 27, 108. 

Reformgymnasium, 4, n. 

Reformrealgymnasium, 4, 11. 

Regulations, for certification of 
teachers, 20; for examination of 
teachers, 34; for practical seminar 
at Leipsic, in; for practical train- 
ing, 61 ; for seminar and practice 
school at Jena, 92; for training 
teachers in England, 298 ; for train- 



334 



INDEX 



ing teachers in Scotland, 317 ; of 
1810, 21, 148; of 1831, 25; of i856, 
28; of 1877, 31; of 1890, 33; of 
1898, 33- 

Rein, 88, 150, 168. 

Responsibility, of college and univer- 
sity, 251 ; of school authorities, 252 ; 
of state, 244 ; of teacher, 249. 

Rhode Island, 223. 

Rostock, University of, 165. 

Royal Pedagogical Seminar, 112. 

Salaries, in Germany, 134, 184. 

Sallwiirk, 179. 

Saxe- Weimar, 91, 173, 180. 

Saxony, 173. 

Schiller, 173, 175. 

Scholarship of German teachers, 191. 

Scholasticum, 85. 

Schutz, 79, 113. 

Schools of education, 237. 

Scotland, 317. 

Secondary schools, American, 207. 

Seminarium prceceptorum, see Seminars. 

Seminarium seleclum prcBceptorum, see 
Seminars. 

Seminarjahr, 33, 61, 62, 69, 71, 74, 91, 
123, 131, 134. 13s. 141. 14s. 180, 190, 
19s, 202. 

Seminars, Berlin, 112; Gottingen, 78; 
gymnasial, 75, 112, 115, 148, 172, 
175, 180; Halle, 79; Jena, 84; 
Konigsberg, 82; Leipsic, 107, no, 
167, 173; meetings of, 135; other 
modern, 143; pedagogical, 82, no, 
113, 148, 149, 167; Royal Peda- 
gogical, in Berlin, 112; seminarium 
prceceptorum, 115, 118, 120, 131, 174, 
193 ; seminarium selecium prcecep- 
torum, 117; state, 179; theological- 
philological-pedagogical, 76, 80 ; uni- 
versity, 75. 

Semler, 79. 

Social position, 187. 

South Dakota, 223. 

Staatsexamen, see State examination. 

Standards of certification, 208, 234. 

Standards of training, 256. 

Standing of teachers, 182 ; financially, 
184; professionally, 183; socially, 
187. 



State control of schools, 3, 19. 

State examination, 123, 194, 276. 

State seminar, 179. 

State supervision, 275. 

Stoy, 84, 88, 167. 

Strassburg, University of, 165. 

Striimpell, 109. 

Studienanstalt, 15. 

Subjects, groups of, 25, 29, 32, 38, 72; 
of examination, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 
38, 39, 40, 72 ; in high school, 207. 

Supervising teacher, 273. 

Supervision, state, 275. 

Supplementary examination, 31, 32, 
37, 58. 

Sweden, 294. 

Syracuse University, 239, 

Teacher, sphere of, in higher schools, 

18. 
Teachers College, 238, 239. 
Tennessee, 226. 
Test lesson, 24, 29, 73, 132. 
Texas, University of, 241. 
Theological-philological-p edagogical 

seminar, see Seminars. 
Theoreticum, 89, 95, 108. 
Theses, 29, 52, 67, 73; subjects of, 142. 
Thorndike, 233. 

Tochterschule, see Mddchenschule. 
Toronto University, 283. 
Trapp, 79, 113. 
Triennium, academic, 25, 148. 
Tiibingen, University of, 166. 
Tuition fee, 5. 

University, 75, 237, 240, 241. 
University degree, privileges of, 21, 

24- _ _ 

University seminar, 75 ; pedagogical, 

167, 168. 
University training shcool, 286. 
Utah, 226. 

Vermont, 227. 
Virginia, 227. 
Visiting classes, 131. 
Vogel, 178. 
Volkelt, no. 

Volksschule, 4, S, 79, 86, 88, 108, 119, 
149. 



INDEX 



335 



Von Humboldt, 22, 82. 

Von Zedlitz, 79, 112. 

Vorschule, 4, 7, 13, 14, 116, 132. 

Washington, 227; University of, 241. 
West Virginia, 228. 
Wiese, 20, 23, 24. 



Wisconsin, 228; University of, 240, 284. 
Wolf, 77, 78, 79, 113. 
Women teachers, 18, 34, 90. 
Wiirzburg, University of, 149, 166. 
Wyoming, 230; University of, 240. 

Ziller, 107, 109, 167. 



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